<p>The Calhoun Mine is perhaps the oldest and best-known mine in Lumpkin County, Georgia. When gold was discovered in Lumpkin County in 1828, which led to the Georgia Gold Rush in 1829, it was discovered on 239 acre owned by Robert Obar. After at least two intermediary sales, the land was purchased by Senator John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, who later served as the 7th Vice President of the United States. Calhoun started a mining company to mine the land and later allowed his son-in-law Thomas Green Clemson, the founder of Clemson University, to manage it. The ore deposit was a very rich deposit and, according to an 1856 letter from Clemson to his brother-in-law, was still producing significant quantities of gold nearly 30 years after its initial discovery on the land. This mine - along with the Consolidated Mine and the Loud Mine - were some of the most productive mines in the Georgia Gold Belt.</p><br>
<p>In 1879, the Calhoun Mine passed from the Calhoun family. In 1939, after the deposits at the Calhoun Mine were long thought to be depleted, a small pocket was discovered and mined. After the initial excitement, things became quiet once again at the mine. The Calhoun Mine was added to the National Register of Historic Places and named a National Historic Landmark in 1973.</p><br>
<p>Calhoun Mine is located about 3 miles (5 km) south of Dahlonega off State Route 60 and on the eastern side of the Chestatee River. It lies on a hill on the west side of the road - about 0.6 miles (1 km) off the road - on the opposite side of the ridge, on private property.</p><br>
<p>The mine was designated a National Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, for its nationally significant role as an instigating element of the Cherokee removal. The mine was located directly adjacent to Cherokee land, and the conflict with miners illegally working Cherokee lands contributed to calls for removal, and the eventual displacement of, the Cherokee from their lands.</p><br>
<p>The Consolidated Mine was a gold mine in Lumpkin County, Georgia, United States, just east of Dahlonega. Like most of the area around Dahlonega, the placer mining on the land on which the mine is located probably started during the Georgia Gold Rush. By 1880, the placer deposits were exhausted and the land was down to hard rock. Gold was soon discovered in a huge quartz vein system, and mined. "The richest acre" was mined deep into the ground, and the resulting shaft became known as the "Glory Hole.”</p><br>
<p>After an interruption of operations at the mine, a group of investors purchased about 7,000 acres (28 km) of land around the discovery site and formed the Dahlonega Consolidated Gold Mining Co. in 1895. After constructing the largest stamp mill east of the Mississippi River at the Consolidated Mine property, the Mining Co. folded in 1906. The mine&#39;s lower workings became flooded and lay dormant until seventy-five years later, when the site came under new ownership.</p><br>
<p>There is still gold to be mined here – but the cost of extracting the gold from the mine exceeds the value of the gold, at least for the time being. Today, a part of the upper level of the mine remains open for tourists, who can tour portions of the "Glory Hole" underground and pan for gold. Original cart rails, electrical lines and even an operational pneumatic drill recovered from the mine may be viewed. This mine and Crisson Mine are the two mines in the Dahlonega area that remain open for tourists. The Consolidated Mine remains the only mine in the area safe enough to take tourists into.</p><br>
<p>The Georgia State Capitol is an architecturally and historically significant building in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. The building has been named a National Historic Landmark which is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. As the primary office building of Georgias government, the capitol houses the offices of the governor, lieutenant governor, and secretary of state on the second floor, chambers in which the General Assembly, consisting of the Georgia State Senate and Georgia House of Representatives, meets annually from January to April. The fourth floor houses visitors galleries overlooking the legislative chambers and a museum located near the rotunda in which a statue of Miss Freedom caps the dome.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The capitol site was occupied previously by the first Atlanta City Hall. To encourage the state government to relocate the capital city to rapidly growing and industrialized Atlanta from rural Milledgeville, the city donated the site. The 1877-79 Constitutional Convention voted in 1877 to permanently move the capital to Atlanta, and in 1879 accepted the city&#39;s offer of the five-acre City Hall/County Courthouse tract, which was conveyed to the state in 1880. The first capitol in Louisville no longer stands, while in Augusta and Savannah the legislature met in makeshift facilities, perhaps causing (or caused by) the alternation of those two cities as capital. The legislature also met at other places, including Macon, especially during and just after the Atlanta Campaign of the American Civil War, which resulted in the capture and burning of Atlanta.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>Like many USA state capitols, the Georgia State Capitol is designed to resemble the Neoclassical architectural style of the United States Capitol, in Washington, D.C. Former Confederate general Philip Cook was a member of the commission that oversaw planning and construction of the building. The commission engaged architects Willoughby J. Edbrooke and Franklin Pierce Burnham, of Chicago to design the building and Miles and Horne of Toledo, Ohio for construction. Work completed in March 1889. Sculptor George Crouch executed all the ornamental work on the building.</p><br>
<p>The Capitol faces west on Washington Street. The façade features a four-story portico, with stone pediment, supported by six Corinthian columns set on large stone piers. Georgias coat of arms, with two figures on each side, is carved on the pediment. The Capitols interior represents the 19th-century style of its time. It was among the earliest buildings to have elevators, centralized steam heat, and combination gas and electric lights. Classical pilasters and oak paneling are used throughout the building. The floors of the interior are marble from Pickens County, which still produces marble today.</p><br>
<p>The open central rotunda is flanked by two wings, each with a grand staircase and three-story atrium crowned by clerestory windows. The Capitol building has undergone frequent renovations to adapt to the growth and change of government. Originally constructed from terra cotta and covered with tin, in a 1958 renovation the present dome was gilded with native gold leaf from near Dahlonega in Lumpkin County, where the first American gold rush occurred during the 1830s. For this reason, legislative business is often referred to as what is happening "under the Gold Dome" by media across the state. The statue Miss Freedom has adorned the dome since the building&#39;s opening.</p><br>
<p>In 1997, the House and Senate chambers were restored to their 1889 appearance with replicated decoration and color schemes. This included the demolition of damaged plaster, the reinstallation of flat plaster at the dome, columns, and walls, and a decorative painting in the House and Senate Chambers.</p><br>
<h2>Georgia Capitol Museum</h2><br>
<p>The museum within the Capitol, in existence since 1889, houses extensive collections representing the natural and cultural history of Georgia. Native American artifacts, animals, rocks and minerals, and fossils illustrate the diversity of the collections. Removed during restoration or renovation, most of the collection remains in storage. The portraits of governors, statues of famous Georgians, and historic flags from many wars are displayed throughout the Capitol. The portraits of all governors elected since 1850 are there, except for Rufus Bullock.</p><br>
<p>The Georgia Capitol Museum is a public education institution housed in the Capitol building under the administration of the University of Georgia Libraries. The museum seeks to preserve and interpret the history of the Georgia Capitol in Atlanta, the functions of the government, and the events that have occurred in the Capitol. To accomplish this, the museum collects, preserves, and interprets artifacts relating to the Capitol or associated with the events that have occurred there.</p><br>
<h2>Liberty Plaza</h2><br>
<p>In 2015, the state of Georgia unveiled a large public plaza just east of the Capitol named Liberty Plaza. After its opening, numerous monuments were relocated from other parts of the Capitol grounds to the plaza, including replicas of the Liberty Bell and Statue of Liberty.</p><br>
<h2>Dimensions</h2><br>
<p>Greatest north–south: 347 ft</p><br>
<p>Greatest central depth: 272 ft</p><br>
<p>Second-Floor Rotunda to ceiling: 187 ft</p><br>
<p>Dome diameter: 75 ft</p><br>
<h2>Monuments on the Capitol grounds</h2><br>
<p>Equestrian statue of John Brown Gordon (erected in 1907).</p><br>
<p>Joseph E. Brown (also USA Senator and Chief Justice of the Georgia Supreme Court) and Elizabeth Brown (1928)</p><br>
<p>Statue of Eugene Talmadge (1949)</p><br>
<p>Richard B. Russell (also a USA Senator and in the Georgia legislature) (1975)</p><br>
<p>Herman Talmadge (also a USA Senator) (1990)</p><br>
<p>Statue of Jimmy Carter (also a USA president and member of the Georgia Senate) (1992)</p><br>
<p>Statue of Ellis Arnall (also state Attorney General) (1997)</p><br>
<p>Plaque and tree honoring William Ambrose Wright, a lieutenant in the Confederate States Army, and Georgia state comptroller for fifty years, as well as insurance commissioner. Erected by the Atlanta Ladies Memorial Association, January 19, 1930.</p><br>
<p>Statue of Benjamin Harvey Hill (Confederate Senator, US Senator and US Representative).</p><br>
<p>Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (2017)</p><br>
<p>Drinking fountain with a bas-relief of Mary Latimer McLendon, a temperance and women&#39;s suffrage activist. Erected in October 1923.</p><br>
<p>USA Coast Guard Survey History Marker (1874)</p><br>
<p>Reproduction of the Liberty Bell (1950)</p><br>
<p>Statue of Liberty replica (1951)</p><br>
<p>Spanish War Veterans Memorial (1967)</p><br>
<p>Flame of Freedom (American Legion) (1969)</p><br>
<p>Expelled Because of Color, a 6 ft bronze statue, by John Thomas Riddle Jr., on the Capitol grounds (1978). It was commissioned in 1976 by the Georgia Legislative Black Caucus, and unveiled in 1978. The statue commemorates the Original 33, the 33 African-American legislators who were expelled from the Georgia legislature in 1868.</p><br>
<p>Vietnam War Memorial (1979)</p><br>
<p>DOGNY Project Sculpture (2002): 9/11 memorial, across the street from the Capitol</p><br>
<p>Statue of Thomas E. Watson (erected in 1932, moved in 2013; Watson was a USA Senator and USA Representative, and nominee for vice president on the People&#39;s Party). In 2013, Governor Nathan Deal ordered the statue moved across the street to Park Plaza.</p><br>
<h2>Georgia&#39;s Old Capitol Museum</h2><br>
<p>The Old State Capitol is at 201 East Greene Street, Milledgeville, Georgia, and served as state capitol from 1807 until 1867. The building was severely damaged by a fire on March 24, 1941 and was rebuilt in its former design to serve as a part of Georgia Military College.Edwin L. Jackson.</p><br>
<p>Carl Vinson Institute of Government. The University of Georgia.. The first floor of the old capitol is open as a museum.</p><br>
<h2>Appearances</h2><br>
<p>Some parts of filming of the premiere episode of the ninth season of the television show The Walking Dead were filmed around and within the Georgia State Capitol over a period of two days.</p><br>
<p>East Freetown is one of two villages in the town of Freetown, Bristol County, Massachusetts, United States. Added to the town in 1747, East Freetown was originally an outpost settlement of Tiverton, Rhode Island, then a part of Massachusetts. It rests on the shore of Long Pond.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>East Freetown was made a part of Freetown as a result of the Pocasset Purchase of 1747. It remained less economically developed and industrialized than its sister village, Assonet well into the 20th century. The village was the birthplace of Massachusetts Governor Marcus Morton.</p><br>
<h3>Historic District</h3><br>
<p>The East Freetown Historic District has been on the National Register of Historic Places since 1999. It contains many buildings, sites, and features of local historical significance. The district is located roughly along Howland, Gurney, Washburn County Roads.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>East Freetown is located in Southeastern Massachusetts. It is bounded by Dartmouth, Fall River, New Bedford, Lakeville, Assonet, Rochester, Acushnet, and Long Pond. It has a hilly terrain, with many outcroppings of bedrock. Maple, elm, oak, pine, and birch trees are common throughout. Numerous streams and brooks flow through the village, including Fall Brook.</p><br>
<p>Many peninsulas exist around Long Pond, laying site for summer resorts such as Heaven&#39;s Heights and Hemlock Point. A small portion of the village comprises a part of the Freetown-Fall River State Forest.</p><br>
<h2>Churches</h2><br>
<p>Several churches have been built in East Freetown.</p><br>
<h3>St. John Neumann Church</h3><br>
<p>St. John Neumann Church is a Roman Catholic parish covering the village of East Freetown. On the grounds of the church are Cathedral Camp and Our Lady of the Lake camp, both of which combined to form the co-ed Cathedral Camp. The camp has an extensive outdoor program, including swimming and boating on Long Pond.</p><br>
<h3>East Freetown Congregational-Christian Church</h3><br>
<p>The East Freetown Congregational-Christian Church is a gathering of people who emphasize music, prayer, and Bible-based preaching as part of their worship life together. The congregation is bound by a covenant and is considered "non-credal". That means there is no declared statement which is used as a filter of membership. The congregation has not been part of any other denomination or structure since its gathering in 1831. From its inception in the New England Christian Connexion movement of the 18th-19th century, the congregation has maintained five tenets of that movement: 1. the Lordship of Jesus Christ as the sole head of the church; 2. the use of no other name than "Christian&quot 3. the canonical Scriptures as the only rule of faith and practice; 4. individual duty of the interpretation of the Scriptures; 5. Christian character as a test of fellowship. The church took on the additional title "Congregational" in 1931 as a recognition of the historical roots of its polity, and as part of an emerging spirit of communion among Reformed tradition American churches.</p><br>
<h2>Schools</h2><br>
<p>From the early 19th century until 1950, Freetown was serviced by several neighborhood grammar schools, several of which existed in East Freetown.</p><br>
<p>Furnace School</p><br>
<p>Mason&#39;s Corner School</p><br>
<h3>Today</h3><br>
<p>From 1950 forward, students have attended the, first for grades 1-8, later K-6, and currently PreK-3. Students also attend (4-5), and Freetown-Lakeville Middle School (6-8).</p><br>
<p>For secondary education, students have three options: Apponequet Regional High School serves students with an academic focus for grades 9-12. Old Colony Regional Vocational Technical High School in Rochester accepts students from Assonet when there are openings, and provides a voc-tech atmosphere. Bristol County Agricultural High School serves students wanting to focus primarily in agricultural and animal studies.</p><br>
<p>Minneapolis City Hall and Hennepin County Courthouse , designed by Long and Kees in 1888, is the main building used by the city government of Minneapolis, as well as by Hennepin County, in the USA state of Minnesota. The structure has served as mainly local government offices since it was built, and today the building is 60 percent occupied by the city and 40 percent occupied by the County. The building is jointly owned by the city and county and managed by the Municipal Building Commission. The Commission consists of the chair of the County Board, the mayor of the City of Minneapolis, a member of the County Board and a member of the Minneapolis City Council. The County Board chair serves as the president of the Commission and the mayor serves as the vice president. The building bears a striking resemblance to the city hall buildings in Cincinnati and Toronto. The City Hall and Courthouse was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1974.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The building replaced an earlier City Hall that existed from 1873 until 1912 near the old intersection between Hennepin Avenue and Nicollet Avenue. That structure eventually was razed to make way for Gateway Park, which continues to occupy part of the old City Hall site. The building also replaced an earlier courthouse and also the earlier Hennepin County Jail, which was located where USA Bank Stadium currently stands.</p><br>
<p>Before the construction of the original City Hall in 1873, city government officials worked out of rented space in the Pence Opera House building, located at Hennepin Avenue and 2nd Street.</p><br>
<p>The building, located at 350 South Fifth Street, is an example of Richardsonian Romanesque architecture. The design is based upon Henry Hobson Richardsons Allegheny County Courthouse in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Washington School, the first schoolhouse in Minneapolis west of the Mississippi River, was demolished to make way for the new building. Groundbreaking took place in 1889, and the cornerstone was laid (a story off the ground) in 1891. Construction did not officially end until 1906, although the structural exterior was essentially complete by the end of 1895. The county began moving in to its side (4th Ave.) in November 1895, while the city (3rd Ave.) side was not occupied until December 1902. Cost was about $3,554,000, which works out to 28¢ per cubic foot ($10/m).When constructed, the building claimed to have the worlds largest four-faced chiming clock. At 24 feet, 6 inches (just under meters), the faces are 18 inches (45.7 cm) wider than those of the Great Clock in London (which houses the famous hour bell Big Ben). The tower housing the clock reaches 345 feet (105 m) in height, and was the tallest structure in the city until the 1920s when the Foshay Tower was built. A 15-bell chime in the tower is played regularly, with noontime concerts provided to the public on holidays and on Fridays and certain Sundays during the warm months. The chime was originally 10 bells, and it was first played on March 10, 1896.</p><br>
<p>The building is built of rose granite quarried in Ortonville, with many stones greater than 20 tonnes in weight. The granite was originally only going to be used for the foundation of the building, with brick used for the upper portion. However, the public appreciated the appearance of the foundation so much that they lobbied for the entire building to be made of granite. This may be a reason for the significant cost overruns — it was originally expected to cost only $1.15 million.</p><br>
<p>Unlike most buildings in downtown Minneapolis, there are no "skyways" connecting the city hall to the rest of the city. Since exterior alterations are not allowed for buildings on the National Register of Historic Places, tunnels were constructed instead. Public pedestrian tunnels connect the building to the Hennepin County Government Center under 5th Street, and to the USA Courthouse under 4th Street. There are also restricted tunnels for use by the sheriff connecting under 4th Avenue to the Hennepin County Jail and to the Government Center. The METRO Blue and Green light rail lines have a stop on the south side of the building: the Government Plaza station.</p><br>
<h2>Interior</h2><br>
<p>Originally, the building had a red terracotta roof, but it began leaking so a copper roof was installed. At 180,000 pounds (81.6 t), it was said to be the largest in the country. The copper has since acquired its characteristic green patina.</p><br>
<p>Over the years, some of the larger spaces in the building were subdivided to make more office space. In the 1940s and 1950s, the city built a mezzanine floor over its side of the 3rd floor, and the county built an annex building on its side of the courtyard. In 1981, a committee plan recommended converting some of the spaces back to their original design and that other spaces be converted to a more open design with offices fronting onto the courtyard instead of the current corridors. The plan also called for the annex building in the courtyard to be demolished, the courtyard domed, and the Father of Waters sculpture moved in there. Many of these aspects of the plan were rejected, although restoration of certain historic spaces has been completed.</p><br>
<p>Saint Boniface Church is the Catholic parish church for the city of New Vienna, Iowa and the surrounding area. It is a Gothic-style church, with stained glass windows, a handcarved main altar, and a striking 200 ft spire The parish, part of the Archdiocese of Dubuque, is partnered with Ss. Peter and Paul Parish, Petersburg, Iowa - the two parishes share a pastor.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The history of the parish can be traced back to the 1840s when a number of German American families came to the area from Ohio in search of farmland. On January 6, 1846, Bishop Mathias Loras of Dubuque celebrated Mass at the home of Hermann Wiechmann, the first Mass celebrated in the New Vienna area. For the next two years, Mass was celebrated at the Wiechmann home.</p><br>
<p>In 1848, the first permanent structure was built. This wood building measured 24 ft by 30 ft and had walls that were 10 ft high.</p><br>
<p>By 1853, the population had increased to the point that a new structure was needed. Construction of this new church was completed in 1855. The church was 64 by 100 ft with 22 ft-high walls. A local resident, William Steffen Sr., was sent with two teams of horses to get three bells for the church. He arrived back in New Vienna just before Easter; the bells were raised in time to chime for the first time on Easter Sunday. This second structure was used until 1887.</p><br>
<p>In 1887, the third and present building was completed. This building is 172 ft long by 62 ft wide. The walls are 35 ft high. The stained glass windows are 14 ft wide by 30 ft high. The steeple is 200 ft high.</p><br>
<p>The church has five altars made of carved wood which are still present in the church today. The old high altar was built by E. Hackner of La Crosse, Wisconsin. This altar cost $5,000.</p><br>
<p>The organ was built in 1891 by the Schuelke Organ Company. The organ at St. Boniface is one of the few intact Schuelke organs that still exist today. Aside from regular maintenance, the organ has remained basically unaltered over the years. One of the few alterations made to the organ was the addition of an electric blower in the 20th century.</p><br>
<p>In 2010 workers began constructing a new entryway on the north side of the church when a sinkhole that was 12 feet wide and 8 feet deep was discovered in the basement. It is not known when the sinkhole formed, but if it had taken out a nearby pillar it could have caused the church building to collapse.</p><br>
<h2>School</h2><br>
<p>Saint Boniface previously had its own parish school, Saint Boniface School, which started operations in 1847. Classes were initially held in private residences before being held inside the church facility. It received a permanent school building in 1870. The school moved into the church in 1922, and a new school building opened in 1924.</p><br>
<p>In 1987 it consolidated into Archbishop Hennessy Catholic School, which had two locations: grades K-3 in New Vienna, and preschool and 4-6 in Petersburg. It served as the joint parish school for Saint Boniface as well as Saints Peter and Paul Church in Petersburg. Enrollment was over 100 at that time. The school had a relationship with Beckman Catholic High School in Dyersville. In 2013 the school consolidated all grades into its Petersburg location. Its enrollment at that time was 60. Enrollments consistently decreased prior to 2017: by 2017 the school only had 45 students. Archbishop Hennessy closed in 2018.</p><br>
<p>The remaining Catholic grade school in the "Spires of Faith" Catholic church network is St. Francis Xavier Catholic School in Dyersville.</p><br>
<p>The Montalvo Arts Center is a non-profit center for the arts in Saratoga, California, United States. Open to the public, Montalvo comprises a cultural and arts center, a park, hiking trails and the historic Villa Montalvo, an Italian Mediterranean Revival mansion nestled in the foothills of the Santa Cruz Mountains. The mansion and estate were constructed from 1912 to 1914 by California statesman and businessman James Duval Phelan. After Phelan&#39;s death, the entire estate was donated to California as a park and then a cultural and arts center as it exists today. The arts center maintains the estate in partnership with Santa Clara County. The mansion is a historic landmark, and in 1978 it was awarded inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Mansion and grounds</h2><br>
<p>The grounds of the villa now encompass 175 acre, more than the original 160 acre purchased by Phelan. The estate boasts several large structures as well as gardens and untouched natural areas. Montalvo includes two theaters, an art gallery, the historic Villa Montalvo, an artist residency complex called The Sally and Don Lucas Artists Residency Program, hiking trails and gardens.</p><br>
<p>The mansion itself boasts 19 rooms and two stories. The first floor of the mansion used to host art exhibits, but is now open only for the many weddings and other occasions that are held there.</p><br>
<p>The grounds include several gardens embellished with marble sculptures and garden structures. The Front Lawn is sometimes used as a theater for some of Montalvo&#39;s dramatic presentations, and the woods behind are open to the public. Since its bequest to the people of California, hiking trails through the surrounding Redwood-speckled hills have been added.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1911, James D. Phelan, a three-term mayor of San Francisco who would go on to be California&#39;s first popularly elected US Senator, purchased 160 acre in the Saratoga countryside and foothills.</p><br>
<p>Phelan began construction of the mansion in 1912. The initial supervising architect was William Curlett. When he died in 1914, his son, Alex Curlett, took over supervision along with partner. The construction of the building was completed that same year.</p><br>
<p>During his lifetime, Phelan hosted many celebrities and notables of the era as guests at Montalvo. Jack London, Ethel Barrymore, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, and Edwin Markham were among Phelans many guests. Though not his only home, Villa Montalvo was one of Phelans favorites and is where he died. Some photographs, correspondence, and other mementos of his life are displayed in cases in the mansion&#39;s library and can be viewed if one happens to be attending an event for which the mansion is open.</p><br>
<p>Upon his death, Phelan bequeathed Montalvo thus:</p><br>
<p>The San Francisco Art Association (SFAA) assumed trusteeship of the estate in 1930. Within a year the association announced the intention to launch an artist residency program, the third program of its kind in the United States. The program began in 1939 with ten artists in residence. In 2004 it became the Montalvo Art Center&#39;s Sally and Don Lucas Artists Residency Program with 10 newly designed discipline specific live/work studios and a commons building.</p><br>
<p>After World War II, a shift in priorities for the SFAA left many people concerned about the future of Villa Montalvo. These citizens together formed the Montalvo Association. Trusteeship was transferred to the organization in October 1953. In 2024, the organization website uses the name.</p><br>
<p>On April 11, 1971, serial killer Karl F. Warner murdered his third and final victim, Kathy Bilek, 18, on the grounds of Villa Montalvo. It was the investigation into the Bilek slaying which led to his arrest and conviction for his string of three slayings of teenage girls throughout the southern Santa Clara Valley.</p><br>
<h2>Montalvo Association</h2><br>
<p>Today, the Montalvo Arts Center is a private non-profit cultural center maintained by the Montalvo Association through a partnership with Santa Clara County. The park and arts center are open to the public. Funding support is provided by the Friends of Montalvo memberships, as well as foundation grants, other private donations, and earned income via ticket sales and rental fees. More than 600 volunteers donate thousands of hours annually to support the arts programs and maintenance of the villa and grounds.</p><br>
<p>Since 1939, the estate has hosted "artists-in-residence" who live and work on the property. Artists range from musicians, painters, actors, writers and architects. While in residence, the participants produce works and give performances. Since Montalvo started its artists-in-residence program, more than 600 artists from 20 countries have participated, including Karla Diaz. In 2003 the residency program&#39;s board found Gordon Knox, who had initiated and run a remarkable arts residency for 11 years, the Civitella Ranieri Foundation at a castle in Umbria, Italy. Knox envisioned and established a new international iteration of the Montalvo artist residency program designed for a new purpose-built residency campus. In the fall of 2004, Montalvo opened the Sally and Don Lucas Artists Programs, which offer facilities and staff that are supportive of the creative process as well as state-of-the-art technology.</p><br>
<p>A small gallery, called the Project Space Gallery, as well as the box office, are located in the building between the mansion and the Carriage House Theatre. Montalvo and its arts programs serve nearly 200,000 visitors each year.</p><br>
<h2>Arboretum</h2><br>
<p>Still called "Villa Montalvo" by local area residents, the Montalvo Arts Center hosts a 137 acre arboretum and botanical garden, located behind the center. It is free and open to the public during daylight hours and run as part of a non-profit organization for art, artists, and the local community.</p><br>
<p>The arboretum is adjacent to the villa and is an Audubon Society bird sanctuary. There are dirt paths leading out of a redwood canyon to Lookout Point at altitude 1,200 ft. A number of forest types are represented, including chaparral, evergreen, and redwood. Trees native to the Santa Cruz Mountains include bay, California nutmeg, Douglas fir, big-leaf maple, tanoak, and coast live oak. Other plants common in the area are broom, mountain mahogany, chamise, coyote brush (Baccharis pilularis), madrone, manzanita, monkey flower, pitcher sage, poison oak, and toyon.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>Phelan named Villa Montalvo in honor of the popular 16th-century Spanish writer Garci Ordonez de Montalvo. Montalvo coined the name "California" in one of his fables. In it he described an island rich with gold and jewels, peopled by Amazons ruled by a queen named Calafia. The Amazons in the fable employed griffins in battle. Images of griffins can be found throughout the arts center grounds, "standing guard".</p><br>
<p>Daufuskie Island, located between Hilton Head Island and Savannah, is the southernmost inhabited sea island in South Carolina. It is 5 mi long by almost 2.5 mi wide – approximate surface area of 8 square miles . With over 3 mi of beachfront, Daufuskie is surrounded by the waters of Calibogue Sound, the Intracoastal Waterway and the Atlantic Ocean. It was listed as a census-designated place in the 2020 census with a population of 557.</p><br>
<p>Accessible only by ferry or barge, and with a full-time population of just over 400, Daufuskie Island contains environmental preserves, private communities, resorts, Gullah houses, diverse art galleries and history. The island was named a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places due to its Gullah and Civil War history. The island is also the setting of Pat Conroys memoir The Water Is Wide recounting Conroys experiences teaching on Daufuskie in the late 1960s.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Daufuskie Island has been inhabited for thousands of years, as evidenced by ancient piles of discarded oyster shells exhibiting pottery shards from all phases of the hunter-gathering period. Prior to European arrival numerous Indian tribes inhabited the Lowcountry and islands. Culturally and linguistically these tribes were of Muskogean stock. Daufuskie comes from the Muscogee language and means "sharp feather", for the island&#39;s distinctive shape.</p><br>
<p>As early as 1523, Spanish explorers were sailing the southeastern coast of North America in search of potential settlements. By 1565, the Spanish had settled in St. Augustine, Florida, and were pushing up the coast establishing and maintaining additional colonies. Concurrent with these 16th-century ambitions for settlement, the French also made attempts at colonization in South Carolina Lowcountry areas. By the mid-1600s the English began to explore the southern coast. Prosperous Caribbean planters sponsored several expeditions to South Carolina. Captain William Hilton and Robert Sandford both made voyages to Port Royal Sound and vicinity. In July 1666 Sanford entered Calibogue Sound between Hilton Head and Daufuskie.</p><br>
<p>It was during this period of early exploration that Spanish settlers introduced their distinctive Iberian horses to the Southeastern coast. Today the descendants of these horses are known as "Carolina Marsh Tacky". These sturdy, intelligent horses are particularly well adapted to the swampy and marshy lowcountry region. Examples of this rare breed can still be found on Daufuskie.</p><br>
<p>In 1684, Spanish soldiers enlisted the help of native warriors to fight Scottish settlers in Port Royal, and thus began the uneasy and difficult history of native entanglement in European settlement history. The inevitable clash of cultures culminated with the so-called Yamasee uprising that consisted of three brutal battles on the southwestern shore of Daufuskie Island between 1715 and 1717 that gave this piece of land the name it still bears today, Bloody Point.</p><br>
<p>The quest for religious freedom ultimately brought two European families to Daufuskie Island—the great-grandson of French Huguenot David Mongin, and the daughter of Italian Prince Filippo de Martinangelo who escaped the Inquisition. The story of these two founding families is intertwined throughout their long history, and both rose to become powerful island plantation owners.</p><br>
<p>The American Revolution brought divided loyalties to the lowcountry. Daufuskie received the nickname "Little Bermuda" during the Revolution due to the residents&#39; Loyalist sentiments. After the Revolution, Daufuskie thrived with the introduction of world-famous sea island cotton, a variety prized by European mills. High quality, sea island cotton exceeded all other long-staple cottons in fiber length, as well as fineness and strength. It was during this period of strong economic growth that several large plantation mansions were constructed.</p><br>
<p>The building of American wooden tall ships triggered the demand for timber from live oak trees abundant on Daufuskie. This hardwood species, unique to the southeastern coast, was prized by shipbuilders for its strength and resistance to rot, as well as its naturally curved limbs. Daufuskie was in the center of the "live oaking" trade crucial to the development of US maritime power. Shipwrights traveled to Daufuskie and the lowcountry to fell the oaks, hew them, and lug the pieces by oxen to coastal landings. The USS Constitution—"Old Ironsides"—was constructed with live oak.</p><br>
<p>Prior to the Civil War, there were eleven plantations on Daufuskie. Large homes were constructed on several of these tracts – Oakley Hall at Bloody Point, Melrose, and Haig Point. The mansion at Haig Point was unique as it was built of tabby. It was the largest tabby domestic building erected in coastal South Carolina.</p><br>
<p>Introduced in the southeast by early Spanish settlers, tabby is a type of concrete made by burning oyster shells to create lime, then mixing it with water, sand, ash and broken oyster shells. Three of the best-preserved, tabby-walled single slave dwellings still standing in Beaufort County can be found today at Haig Point.</p><br>
<p>Early in the Civil War, Union forces occupied the Beaufort-area islands. Union troops on Daufuskie supported the siege and reduction of Fort Pulaski protecting the Savannah River entrance. This Union presence caused white plantation owners to flee, leaving property and slaves behind. After the war, Daufuskie&#39;s remoteness allowed Gullah culture to survive and flourish through the generations.</p><br>
<p>The Gullah language is a legacy of the original slaves and later laborers who remained once the plantations folded. The lowcountry was remote until the mid-20th century, but the isolation of Daufuskie created the perfect climate for the language and manners of the Gullah people to remain remarkably well preserved. The local dialect is heavily influenced by West African languages and rural English. Daufuskie is in the center of the Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor.</p><br>
<p>Following the Civil War the farming, mining, and timber industries were re-established in Beaufort County and the lowcountry. This activity meant the waterways around Daufuskie, with its critical position between Port Royal and Savannah, became very busy. Navigation aids became necessary to support the increased volume of shipping. In 1873 the Haig Point Range Lights were constructed on the island&#39;s northern end. This was followed by the Bloody Point Range Lights in 1883 built to assist ships approaching the Savannah River entrance.</p><br>
<p>From the 1880s the oyster industry flourished on Daufuskie. By the turn of the century the island had a population of 2,000-3,000, most of whom worked in this lucrative shellfish trade. The flat coastline, saltmarsh estuary, and natural oyster reefs, combined with a lengthy spawning season, make waters surrounding Daufuskie the perfect habitat for growing abundant clusters of meaty, briny oysters. Daufuskie oysters were known as far away as Bar Harbor and New York. It is reported that the Tsar of Russia preferred Daufuskie oysters.</p><br>
<p>Eventually, in the 1950s, pollution closed the oyster beds and the islands economy declined. Electricity came to the island in 1953 and telephones in 1972; however, with few opportunities for work, the population shrank to less than a hundred people, leaving a legacy of rich Gullah history. In the 1980s developers started making plans to make Daufuskie Island a residential development destination, and the planned developments of Bloody Point, Melrose, Haig Point, and Oakridge were born. Despite this progress and development, the islands historic district has remained untouched to preserve the Gullah culture, and today the entire island is on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Industry</h2><br>
<p>The island&#39;s shoreline and tidal range are conducive to the lengthy spawning season of oysters. On the island, the oysters grow in clusters rather than individually. The natives of the island valued the natural abundance of oysters. Massive mounds of shucked oyster shells found on the island stand as testament to the extensive use of oysters on the island by its native residents. Native Americans used the meat of the oysters as food and used shells to fashion tools, fertilizers, and tabby. The oyster industry began on Daufuskie Island in the 1880s, when an Italian immigrant named Luigi Paolo Maggioni leased oyster beds and opened a raw shuck oyster house. Later in 1893, he opened the L.P. Maggioni and Company Oyster Factory. The factory harvested, shucked, steamed, and canned oysters to ship to Savannah. The success of the company brought several others to the island. Several shucking shacks and factories remained on the island after the L.P. Maggioni Company moved to Savannah, Georgia. The oyster industry flourished as people as far away as Bar Harbor and New York considered Daufuskie Island oysters a delicacy. “Daufuski” brand oysters with the distinctive Indian chief label were shipped worldwide, reportedly even enjoyed by Tsar Nicolas II of Russia. The 1930s depression and World War II caused the oyster industry to decline as many left the island for better job opportunities. The industry faced more setbacks as pollution from the Savannah River in the 1950s contaminated the island oyster beds. New wage and hour laws increased labor costs, resulting in the cannery closing after the 1986 spring season. Fortunately, mom-and-pop shops continue to sell oysters on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Locations</h2><br>
<p>To the northeast is the Haig Point Club, a private, member-owned residential club with around 150 year-round residents and over 225 homes.</p><br>
<p>South of Haig Point was the Melrose Resort and residential community. Farther south on the eastern side of the island is Oak Ridge, a small undeveloped oceanfront community, followed by Bloody Point, a semi-private residential community.</p><br>
<p>Melrose Resort remains in disrepair as of April 2019, and the former owner faces charges for using resort money to pay for his own expenses.</p><br>
<p>The western part of the island is unincorporated land. About 100 residents live in a variety of accommodations, from cabins and small houses to waterfront homes with private docks. This section of the island received federal designation as a historic district in the early 1980s. According to a study conducted by the Savannah College of Art and Design, the island has excellent examples of Gullah homes that have not been altered. There are descendants of the Gullah people living in this area on land which they have owned since just after the Civil War. The Historic District is also known for its artisan shops, "quirky restaurants" and one coffee shop (located in the Mary Fields School where author Pat Conroy once taught), wildlife and historic church. Most of the Historic District is traversed by historic winding dirt roads lined with Live Oaks, most of them looking very much the same as they did at least a century ago, including School Road, Benjies Point, Prospect Road, Bryant Road, and Pappys Landing.</p><br>
<p>A census in 2007 by the local Daufuskie Island Fire and Rescue Department counted a total of just 429 residents living full-time on the entire island. Rock musician John Mellencamp built a house on the island and uses it as a retreat.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>Daufuskie Island is an unincorporated community and census-designated place in Beaufort County, in the USA state of South Carolina. In covers the population of Daufuskie Island, the southernmost inhabited sea island in South Carolina and a historic district on the National Register of Historic Places. It was first listed as a census-designated place (CDP) in the 2020 census with a population of 557.</p><br>
<h3>2020 census</h3><br>
<h2>Culture and governance</h2><br>
<p>The island is home to the First Union African Baptist Church, which is Daufuskie&#39;s oldest building, and is still in use today as a place of worship.</p><br>
<p>There are two historic lighthouses on Daufuskie Island: the Bloody Point Lighthouse, built in 1883, and the Haig Point Lighthouse, built ten years earlier.</p><br>
<p>The island is part of Beaufort County, South Carolina, and has an. The Daufuskie Island Council serves as the official voice between Daufuskie and the county and other stakeholder groups.</p><br>
<p>Daufuskie had a long-standing tradition of self-governance, with the Beaufort County Sheriff&#39;s office responding only to emergencies. Due to an influx of tourism, the island requested a greater police presence to monitor visitors in 2018. The now-consistent police presence is resulting in an increased number of tickets and warnings for residents and visitors alike for golf cart registrations and open containers.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Daufuskie Island School is a Beaufort County public school built in 1997. It is a modern facility with two classrooms, lunchroom and library. The students are in multigrade classrooms: pre-K through 2nd grade and 3rd grade through 5th grade. Generally there are around 15-18 students each year, and the school has significant community support and many volunteers on the island.</p><br>
<p>Students in grades 6–12 are transported to Hilton Head Middle School and Hilton Head High School by a ferry. On Daufuskie, these students take a small school bus to the ferry. Once the students reach Hilton Head, they are picked up by a county school bus and taken to their appropriate school campus. The entire trip is about an hour and ten minutes each morning and afternoon. The students often do their homework or simply nap during the boat ride.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>No bridges connect Daufuskie Island with mainland South Carolina; therefore all island access must come by boat. A makes several daily transits between Buckingham Landing in the Bluffton area and Melrose Landing on Daufuskie.</p><br>
<p>Beaufort County provides a subsidized ferry that transports residents. The Haig Point Club has its own private ferry service. There are also several private companies that provide 25-30 minute water taxi services to the island. Residents of the clubs, as well as some of the other residents on the island, use golf carts and bicycles to travel around the island, although there are also some regular vehicles.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>The Daufuskie Island Conservancy is one of several local organizations charged with preserving the ecosystem, flora and fauna, and quality of life on Daufuskie Island.</p><br>
<p>Daufuskie Island boasts a wide variety of nature and animal life. One of the notable animals that inhabit the island is the fox squirrel. The bald eagle is also one of the creatures found on the island.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Daufuskie Island has a humid subtropical climate with hot, humid summers and cool, refreshing winters.</p><br>
<h2>Notable natives</h2><br>
<p>Sallie Ann Robinson</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Jimmy Buffett song "Prince of Tides" (from his 1988 album Hot Water) laments the development of Daufuskie and loss of the Gullah culture.</p><br>
<p>Pat Conroys 1972 book The Water Is Wide is set on Daufuskie, fictionalized as Yamacraw Island. The book recounts Conroys experiences teaching on the island in 1969. The book won Conroy a humanitarian award from the National Education Association and an Anisfield-Wolf Book Award. The book was made into a feature film, Conrack, starring Jon Voight in 1974. The novel was also produced as The Water Is Wide in 2006, a Hallmark Hall of Fame TV movie starring Jeff Hephner.</p><br>
<p>One episode of the National Geographic Channel television series Diggers (S2, E10; 2013) featured professional treasure hunters Tim Saylor and George "KG" Wyant visiting Daufuskie seeking pirates&#39; gold.</p><br>
<p>The March 2014 issue of Architectural Digest magazine featured the Daufuskie part-time home of singer John Mellencamp.</p><br>
<p>Travel + Leisure magazine designated restaurant Marshside Mama&#39;s, at the County Landing on Daufuskie, as one of the "Ten Best Beach Bars" in America.</p><br>
<p>The Travel Channel show Bizarre Foods America featured a segment with Daufuskie native Sallie Ann Robinson on a show (S1, E8; 2012) dedicated to Lowcountry and Gullah food and culture.</p><br>
<p>The Vulcan statue is the largest cast iron statue in the world, and is the city symbol of Birmingham, Alabama, United States, reflecting its roots in the iron and steel industry. The 56 ft tall statue depicts the Roman god Vulcan, god of the fire and forge, with ironworking equipment. It was created as Birminghams entry for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition  in St. Louis, Missouri. While it is the worlds largest made of iron, it is also among the nations tallest statues of any kind.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Commissioned by the Commercial Club of Birmingham, Italian-born sculptor Giuseppe Moretti began designing the monumental figure in 1903, using a 6 ft tall model to study the form. He next sculpted a clay master model in an unfinished church in Passaic, New Jersey, and this was then divided into sections and transported by railroad to the Birmingham Steel and Iron Company for the preparation of casting molds for the iron.</p><br>
<p>Moretti received an artists fee of $6,000, which would be about $ in dollars. The Commercial Club of Birmingham held art shows, concerts, baseball games, and many more activities to raise the estimated $15,000 ($ in dollars) it would cost to build and transport the statue. It is also noted that pot metal statuettes of Vulcan were sold at both the St. Louis Worlds Fair and in Birmingham, Alabama for two dollars apiece to help in the accumulated costs it took to create the statue.</p><br>
<p>The Vulcan statue consists of 29 cast-iron components with connecting flanges that are bolted together internally. The heaviest section is his whole head, which weighs 11,000 lb. Iron forgemen designed and executed the connection details for the statue, which originally had no internal framework and was self-supporting. The grey iron castings were made in Birmingham entirely from locally produced iron.</p><br>
<p>The completed weight of the god Vulcans figure alone is 100,000 lb. When Vulcans anvil, block, hammer, and spearpoint are added, the statue weighs a total of 120,000 lb and it stands on a 123 ft pedestal. The statue has a chest circumference of 22 ft and a waist circumference of 18 ft.</p><br>
<h3>1904 World&#39;s Fair</h3><br>
<p>The statue was shipped to St. Louis as Birminghams entry into the 1904 Worlds Fair. Vulcan dramatically demonstrated the mineral riches and manufacturing capabilities of the Birmingham area while on display in the Louisiana Purchase Exposition&#39;s "Palace of Mines and Metallurgy". It was awarded a "Grand Prize".</p><br>
<p>When the 1904 World&#39;s Fair ended, the Vulcan statue was dismantled and returned to its home city of Birmingham, only to be left in pieces alongside the railroad tracks due to unpaid freight bills.</p><br>
<h3>Alabama State Fairgrounds</h3><br>
<p>The Vulcan statue was eventually re-erected at the Alabama State Fairgrounds, but the statue&#39;s arms were installed incorrectly, and the god was without his spear, which had been lost on the way from St. Louis.</p><br>
<p>With nothing to hold in its hands, Vulcan soon became an advertising figure. Over the years, Vulcan held an ice cream cone, a Coca-Cola bottle, and even Heinz pickles. In the late 1920s, the statue was disassembled for inspection. During this time, children would often play around the disassembled statue. It was painted a flesh color and was reassembled in the early 1930s.</p><br>
<h3>Atop Red Mountain</h3><br>
<p>It was not until 1936 that the statue found a suitable home, thanks to the Works Progress Administration, which partially funded a new park in the city at the top of Red Mountain. A 126 ft pedestal was built of local sandstone, and Vulcan was hoisted into place. A new spear was fabricated to be held high in his right hand while his left hand held a hammer at his side. Vulcan was repainted in an aluminum like finish. The statue&#39;s naked buttocks have been a source of humor for many years. A novelty song, "Moon Over Homewood," refers to the fact that the statue "moons" the neighboring suburb of Homewood, Alabama.</p><br>
<p>A nine-day festival commenced on May 7, 1939 to dedicate Vulcan Park. Evelyn Tully was crowned the Vulcan Queen. Guests of honor included the foundrymen who originally cast Vulcan. A crowd of 5,000 was present for the opening night of the festival.</p><br>
<p>In 1938 a challenge was sent out to hundreds of engineers and architects throughout the Southeast to design the base and park area. There were hundreds of submissions but a little known draftsman by the name of Carl Franklin Edins from Birmingham, Alabama was unanimously declared the winner.</p><br>
<p>To take full advantage of Vulcans position overlooking Birmingham, the city&#39;s Junior Chamber of Commerce in 1946 made the statue into a symbol for road safety. His spear was replaced by a neon torch that glowed green, except during the 24 hours following a fatal traffic accident, when it glowed red. The spear was restored after the 1999–2004 restoration.</p><br>
<p>In 1949, Vulcan got new neighbors, when two television stations, WAFM-TV (now WVTM) and WBRC located their studios and towers on Red Mountain.</p><br>
<h3>Centennial facelift</h3><br>
<p>To celebrate Birmingham&#39;s centennial, the area around the statue was given a $1 million facelift in 1971. The original tower was clad in Alabama marble with an elevator and observation deck added. A covered walkway also connected a gift shop and snack bar. Vulcan was repainted a rust red a few years later. Vulcan was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 6, 1976.</p><br>
<p>Unfortunately, the statue itself had, when originally placed atop the pedestal, been filled up to the chest with concrete and had begun to deteriorate seriously due to different expansion and contraction rates of concrete versus cast iron. By 1990, an engineering study found that the statue was in danger of collapse.</p><br>
<h3>1999–2004 restoration</h3><br>
<p>Vulcan was removed during October and November 1999 in preparations for a $14 million renovation process that saw the park and pedestal restored to its original 1938 appearance. The statue sat in Vulcan Park&#39;s parking lot until the fall of 2001, when it was shipped to Robinson Iron to be repaired. The statue itself was thoroughly inspected and repaired, with some parts, including the lost spear point, re-cast. The new and restored pieces were thoroughly coated with a durable paint system, including a light-gray finish coat dubbed "Vulcan Gray" by the specifier.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, in 2002, the 1971 park additions were demolished, and scaffolding went up around Vulcans tower. Workmen cleaned and repaired the original tower. Vulcans head and right arm went on display at the Birmingham Museum of Art while the tower was prepared.</p><br>
<p>Vulcan was re-erected on a steel armature atop his tower during June 2003, restored to its original appearance as intended by Moretti, reoriented to the east. Television stations WVTM and WBRC both provided live webcams of the reinstallation.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after the statue was reinstalled, the scaffolding came down, and a new observation deck, providing panoramic views of the area, was installed. The museum at the base was rebuilt and a new elevator was installed, but oriented so it would not be easily seen from downtown Birmingham. The original waterfalls were not rebuilt, though the stone walkways leading from the parking lot directly to Vulcans tower were restored. The statue and park were officially reopened in 2004, celebrating Vulcans 100th birthday. In 2004, Vulcan Park welcomed more than 100,000 visitors who took in the statues views of downtown Birmingham.</p><br>
<p>The restoration project received a National Preservation Honor Award from the National Trust for Historic Preservation in 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Vulcan Park and Museum</h2><br>
<p>Vulcan Park and Museum (VPM) features views of Birmingham, an interactive history museum that examines Vulcan and Birmingham&#39;s story, and a 10-acre (4 ha) urban green space. In May 2007, Vulcan Park and Museum was designated an official Birmingham Information Center by the Greater Birmingham Convention and Visitors Bureau and offers information on transportation services, restaurants, events and other cultural offerings in Birmingham.</p><br>
<p>Vulcan Park and Museum is operated by Vulcan Park Foundation, a non-profit organization with a mission to preserve and promote Vulcan as the symbol for the Birmingham region, to advance knowledge and understanding of Birmingham&#39;s history and culture, and to encourage exploration of the region.</p><br>
<p>Fort Larned National Historic Site preserves Fort Larned which operated from 1859 to 1878. It is approximately 5.5 mi west of Larned, Kansas, United States.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Camp on Pawnee Fork was established on October 22, 1859, to protect traffic along the Santa Fe Trail from hostile Native Americans. It was renamed Camp Alert in 1860, as the small garrison of about 50 men had to remain constantly alert for Indians. In May 1860 it was moved upstream, 3 mi 30 miles to the west up the Pawnee Fork, and by the end of the month was renamed Fort Larned. It served the same purpose as Camp Alert and as an agency for the administration of the Central Plains Indians by the Bureau of Indian Affairs under the terms of the Fort Wise Treaty of 1861. The forts service ended as a combination of the tribes relocation to reservations and the completion of railroads across Kansas that ended the need for the Santa Fe Trail.</p><br>
<p>Larned, Kansas and the fort that was constructed there are named in honor of Colonel Benjamin F. Larned, the paymaster general of the United States Army at the time the post was established. Larned experienced a lengthy military career, first serving as an ensign in the 21st Infantry during the War of 1812. He was promoted to captain after the defense of Fort Erie, and by 1854 Larned was a colonel and had been appointed paymaster general. Despite the town and fort bearing his name, Colonel Larned never came to Kansas.</p><br>
<p>As the American government claimed vast amounts of land west of the Mississippi River, trade and commerce with the territories grew exponentially. According to one source in 1859, trade had risen $10,000,000 annually. In the Missouri Republican, it was reported that 2,300 men, 1970 wagons, 840 horses, 4,000 mules, 15,000 oxen, 73 carriages, and over 1,900 tons of freight left Missouri for New Mexico. It became apparent an additional fortification was required to protect the trade routes. Fort Larned&#39;s location was chosen by William Bent, an agent for the Upper Arkansas Indians. Bent stated, "I consider it essential to have two permanent stations for troops, one at the mouth of Pawnee Fork, and one at Big Timbers, both upon the Arkansas River....To control them (the Indians), it is essential to have among them the perpetual presence of a controlling military force."</p><br>
<p>The forts original structures were poorly constructed and inadequate. Built of adobe bricks, Fort Larned consisted of an officers quarters, two combination storehouses and barracks, a guardhouse, two laundresses&#39; quarters, and a hospital, with a bakery and meat house being later additions. After its establishment, nearby Plains Indians began to respect the trail commerce. In August, 1861, Colonel Leavenworth, reporting from Fort Larned, stated the Indians had left the Santa Fe trail area and there was no apprehension of any hostilities.</p><br>
<p>When the Civil War erupted in 1861, Fort Larned witnessed its first action and hostility from the Indians. Soldiers in the regular army were removed from the post to join the growing conflict in the East, leaving the fort to be operated by volunteer troops from Kansas, Colorado, and Wisconsin. Raids and harassment of travelers by Plains Indians increased during the Civil War years. On July 17, 1864, Kiowa Indians raided Fort Larned and stole 172 horses and mules from the corral. The raiders were pursued but never caught. In 1865 a system of escorting wagon trains was established, and all merchants were forbidden travel westward beyond Fort Larned without an armed escort.</p><br>
<p>Though the fort was never directly involved in any Civil War engagements, one incident nearly brought the fighting to Larned. In May 1862, Confederate General Albert Pike arranged an alliance with some Kiowa and Seminole Indians with intentions of capturing Forts Larned and Wise. The plan was never carried out, as the Indians left for their annual hunt when the weather improved.</p><br>
<p>Fort Larned was the site of a meeting between General Winfield Scott Hancock and several Cheyenne chiefs on April 12, 1867, in which Hancock intended to impress the Dog Soldier chiefs with his military power. After the meeting, Hancock, along with George Armstrong Custer and the 7th USA Cavalry traveled west of Fort Larned to a combined Cheyenne and Lakota camp, inciting the villagers to flee. Hancock ordered the village burned, beginning a summer of warfare known as Hancocks War. Fort Larned assisted in bringing Hancocks War to an end by supplying the Medicine Lodge Treaty. During the winter of 1868–69, USA Major General Philip H. Sheridan launched a campaign against the Cheyenne, Kiowa, and Comanche Indians in the Great Plains region. Sheridan&#39;s men attacked any who resisted, taking their supplies and livestock and pushing the remaining Indians back into their reservations. By the end of the Winter Campaign, Sheridan had forced a majority of the Indians in the Fort Larned area on to reservations.</p><br>
<p>Renovations to Fort Larned took place between 1866 and 1868. The original sod and adobe structures were removed and replaced with the sandstone buildings that make up the fort today. By 1871, no escorts were required for the wagon trains traveling on the Santa Fe Trail, eliminating the need for military presence in the region. The post was abandoned on July 13, 1878, and on March 26, 1883, the Fort Larned Military Reservation was transferred from the War Department to the General Land Office of the Department of the Interior.</p><br>
<p>From 1885 to 1966, the buildings housed the headquarters of a ranch, with the owners living in the house of the commanding officer and the employees residing in what had been the officers&#39; quarters. In 1957 the Fort Larned Historical Society was founded to develop and open the site as a tourist attraction. The fort was designated as a National Landmark in 1961, and in 1964 it was incorporated as a unit of the National Park System.</p><br>
<h2>Historic Site</h2><br>
<p>Barracks – Barracks housed the infantry and cavalry on the north side of the Fort. The barracks housed up to four companies. On average, just 100 or 150 troops were stationed here. By 1868, a peak of 400 and 500.</p><br>
<p>Shops – Repairs were handled by skilled, civilian tradesmen. Blacksmiths and carpenters were hired at high wages. In 1867, a blacksmiths made $85 a month, saddlers and wheelwrights $90. Soldiers who had skills could take on extra duty working in the shops building as laborers, blacksmiths, and mechanics. The bakery was at the north end of the shops and baked bread. The bread was allowed to "dry" on racks for at least two days before being served.</p><br>
<p>Warehouses – An important role for a frontier fort was as a place to store the supplies that kept the Army functioning, including food, ammunition, and clothing. The first sandstone buildings completed after the blockhouse. The first two, the Old Commissary and the Quartermaster Storehouse, brandish loopholes from which the fort could be defended with rifle fire in the event of an attack.</p><br>
<p>Officers Row – The company officers quarters were designed to house four companies of officers. A typical companys officers included two lieutenants and one captain. The officer were divided into two halls, each with four rooms; a lieutenant was housed in one room while captains could claim two. In the rear of each half of the building was a kitchen and servants quarters.</p><br>
<p>Blockhouse – The first sandstone structure to be completed was the blockhouse. It provided for defense. Built with two floor, each with loopholes to defend from attackers. It included an underground well. As the threat of attack diminished, the blockhouse was converted into the post&#39;s prison. The well tunnel was partially filled and used for solitary confinement. The rifle loopholes were also filled. The blockhouse is the only sandstone building that has been completely rebuilt, though it has been located on its original foundation.</p><br>
<p>With nine historic buildings, the fort survives as one of the best-preserved examples of Indian Wars-period forts. Most of the buildings, including the barracks, commissary, and officers quarters, are furnished to their original appearance. Fort Larned National Historic Site is open daily, year-round, and admission is free. The park offers several special events throughout the year, living history demonstrations, and ranger-guided tours.</p><br>
<h2>Units stationed at Fort Larned</h2><br>
<p>The following units were stationed at Fort Larned during its 19 years of operation:</p><br>
<p>1st USA Cavalry – 1859</p><br>
<p>2nd USA Infantry – 1859–63</p><br>
<p>2nd USA Dragoons – 1860–61</p><br>
<p>2nd Regiment Kansas Volunteer Cavalry – 1862</p><br>
<p>9th Regiment Kansas Volunteer Cavalry – 1862–64</p><br>
<p>2nd Colorado Volunteer Cavalry – 1862–65</p><br>
<p>9th Battery, Wisconsin Light Artillery – 1862–65</p><br>
<p>1st Colorado Volunteer Cavalry – 1862–64</p><br>
<p>12th Regiment Kansas Volunteer Infantry – 1863</p><br>
<p>McLain’s Independent Colorado Volunteer Battery – 1864</p><br>
<p>15th Regiment Kansas Volunteer Cavalry – 1864–65</p><br>
<p>3rd Wisconsin Volunteer Cavalry – 1864</p><br>
<p>11th Regiment Kansas Volunteer Cavalry – 1864–65</p><br>
<p>2nd USA Volunteer Infantry – 1865</p><br>
<p>48th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment – 1865</p><br>
<p>17th Regiment Illinois Volunteer Cavalry – 1865</p><br>
<p>2nd USA Cavalry – 1865–66</p><br>
<p>13th USA Infantry – 1865</p><br>
<p>3rd USA Infantry – 1866–72</p><br>
<p>37th USA Infantry – 1867</p><br>
<p>10th USA Cavalry – 1867–69</p><br>
<p>6th USA Infantry – 1871–72</p><br>
<p>5th USA Infantry – 1872–74</p><br>
<p>19th USA Infantry – 1874–78</p><br>
<p>The 10th US Cavalry, stationed at Fort Larned from 1867 to 1869, was one of the first two all-black cavalry units utilized in the country, along with the 9th US Cavalry. On January 2, 1869, the 10th Cavalry&#39;s stables at Fort Larned burned to the ground. The fire killed dozens of horses, destroyed equipment, and caused the unit to be reassigned to Fort Zarah. In 1999, magnetic gradiometry and electromagnetic conductivity surveys were conducted at the fort to attempt to determine the location of the stables, which had been lost. The surveys identified several areas of anomalies consistent with locations of buildings, as well as evidence of disturbances to the land that occurred after the buildings were no longer used as a fort.</p><br>
<p>Fort Scott National Historic Site is a historical area under the control of the United States National Park Service in Bourbon County, Kansas, United States. Named after General Winfield Scott, who achieved renown during the Mexican–American War, during the middle of the 19th century the fort served as a military base for US Army action in what was the edge of settlement in 1850. For the next quarter century, it was used as a supply base and to provide security in turbulent areas during the opening of the West to settlement, a period which included Bleeding Kansas and the American Civil War.</p><br>
<p>The current national historic site protects 20 historic structures, a parade ground, and five acres (20,000 m) of restored tallgrass prairie, inside the city of Fort Scott. It is open to visitors most days of the year.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1842, Fort Scott was named after Winfield Scott, was established on the American frontier on the military road in eastern Kansas between Fort Leavenworth and Fort Gibson. It was established to provide protection to the rapidly increasing number of settlers, who were migrating from the Eastern United States. Fort Scott became one of a chain of forts intended to protect the new settlers from the Plains Indians, as well as to protect the Indians from the settlers&#39; encroachment.</p><br>
<p>The United States government intention to reserve permanent Indian lands west of the Missouri River gave way to the competition of settlers continuing to encroach on the Indian settlements. Fort Scott&#39;s most active days were between 1842 and 1853, although it was also used during the Civil War.</p><br>
<h3>Army days</h3><br>
<p>The Cherokee of Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) were upset to have Fort Wayne in their proximity. After some delay, the US Army decided to abandon Fort Wayne and move its soldiers to a new fort to be built between Fort Leavenworth and the site. The Army both wanted to placate the Cherokee (who were supervised by the Department of Defense) and provide more defense for white settlers and other Indians against the Osage, who had been conducting frequent raids in the area.</p><br>
<p>On April 1, 1842, some soldiers of Fort Wayne left their fort and on April 22 arrived where Fort Scott would be built, in the Osage Cuestas section of modern-day Kansas. After haggling with the Cherokees to acquire the land, the rest of Fort Wayne&#39;s garrison left the fort on May 26 and arrived at the Fort Scott site on May 30.</p><br>
<p>Unlike most forts for military use, the fort did not have defensive walls or structures when first built; the wide-open area and the available artillery made an enclosed fort unnecessary. The soldiers concentrated on building structures for lodging the men, animals, and equipment. These buildings were on the edges of a 350 ft parade ground.</p><br>
<p>The post quartermaster, Captain Thomas Swords, was in charge of building Fort Scotts structures, and had to deal with the problems of construction on the Kansas prairie, which had few trees. He had only two bricklayers and three carpenters to rely on, as there were few civilians and most of the soldiers had other duties to perform. Wood was available, but the mill was built 1.5 mi away, making transport time-consuming. Swords found his efforts plagued by lack of wood, skilled labor and working equipment. Freak accidents destroyed much of the wood intended for the forts construction. As a result, only one duplex of the five planned officers quarters (four duplexes and post commandant&#39;s house) was built by 1844, and the intended enlisted barracks were not completed. In his 1844 inspection of the fort, Colonel George Croghan reported that, in comparison to other frontier forts, he considered Fort Scott "above average".</p><br>
<p>Due to the rising tensions that escalated in the Mexican–American War, the US Army redeployed troops to the Southwest. With Fort Scott still uncompleted, officials decided on April 25, 1850, that no more construction would be done there, after eight years and $35,000. By the time it was finished, it was obsolete; three years later, it was abandoned by the military in favor of the more western Fort Riley.</p><br>
<p>For the average soldier, life at the fort was "monotonous". Until the permanent structures were built, soldiers had to live in tents, which lacked comfort. Aside from a few whiskey peddlers and prostitutes, few civilians lived at the fort. Officers had brought their personal slaves with them, including Captain Swords. The border with Missouri was 5.15 mi east of Fort Scott. In Missouri was a grog shop that supplied soldiers, and quite a few courts-martial followed soldiers&#39; going AWOL at the shop. The desertion rate from the fort ranged from 12 to 16%, due to boredom, irregular pay, and hatred for military life. As no combat took place near the fort, it seemed more of a frontier village than a military base. Hunting was a popular pastime; according to Captain Swords, "wolf chasing and duck hunting" was the only way one officer could tolerate the place.</p><br>
<h3>Bleeding Kansas</h3><br>
<p>Two years after the army abandoned the fort, the buildings were sold by auction to civilians, with two being converted to hotels. In 1854 the Kansas–Nebraska Act repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which had kept slavery out of Kansas. Missourians in favor of slavery soon moved to Kansas to try to sway the vote of whether or not Kansas would permit slavery. Settlers from New England arrived equally determined to keep it out. Each of the two competing factions of the Bleeding Kansas conflict claimed one of the hotels at Fort Scott: Free-Soil at the Fort Scott Hotel and Pro-Slavery at the Western Hotel. Most of the residents in Fort Scott supported slavery, but those outside the town tended to the free-soil side. During this time, there were local incidents of murder and attempted arson, typical elements of the guerrilla conflicts that were prevalent in the fighting.</p><br>
<h3>Army returns</h3><br>
<p>During the American Civil War, the fort was renewed as a US military post. In August 1861, the Union Army took command of Fort Scott, and readied it for the war times. The United States Army also took over several blocks within the town for commissary and quartermaster functions. The Union Army rented the properties from the current civilian owners. Troops from Indiana, Iowa, Colorado, Ohio, and Wisconsin would come to the fort, and either stayed by the fort, or traveled farther, to subjugate Missouri, Arkansas, or the Indian Territory. Fort Scott was one of the few installations that recruited and trained black soldiers for the United States Colored Troops of the Union Army.</p><br>
<p>A major supply depot was situated at the fort. Confederate general Sterling Price hoped to capture the town, but the closest the Confederate force came to the garrison was 10 mi away at Battle of Dry Wood Creek. The site was strategically important as it was within a Southern-sympathizing area and close to the Confederate state of Arkansas and the "unstable" Indian Territory (present-day state of Oklahoma), where many of the members of the Five Civilized Tribes were allied with the Confederates. The fort served as a "general hospital" (large military hospital) and prison until after the war. Following the end of the war, in October 1865 the US Army left the facilities and sold off by auction what they controlled.</p><br>
<p>On January 14, 1870, the Army returned with the formation of the Post of Southeast Kansas. The Post was based at Fort Scott, but the soldiers camped along the rail tracks, and seldom used the original fort. They were sent to protect the railroads and workers from settlers. Some of the latter feared that the railroad, which had been awarded land for development by the US Government in rights-of-way, would evict them from their squatter homes. The settlers considered the troops lackeys to the railroads, and lumped both as enemies.</p><br>
<p>Settlers also had some continuing conflicts with Indians and insurgents using the recent Confederate cause as excuse for robbery. By the spring of 1873, the US Army withdrew the troops from Fort Scott for good. From 1873 to 1965, the buildings of the fort were left unattended, and slowly deteriorated. Many military buildings were razed and replaced with structures built for civilian use.</p><br>
<h2>Modern times</h2><br>
<p>With the Act of August 31, 1965, the National Park Service gave the city government of Fort Scott, Kansas the necessary funds and technical knowledge to restore the fort.</p><br>
<p>On October 19, 1978, Fort Scott became a National Historic Site under the supervision of the National Park Service, encompassing 17 acre. Today the fort is open throughout the year, save for Thanksgiving, Christmas, and New Year&#39;s Day. Visitation has declined in recent years. In 2005 visitation was 25,528; in 2007 it was 22,314.</p><br>
<p>Surviving structures include four officers barracks, one dragoons barracks, two infantry barracks, a hospital, guardhouse, dragoon stables, ordnance and post headquarters, quartermaster stables, bake shop, flagpole, and magazine. Another feature of the park is 5 acre of tallgrass prairie restored as part of an ecology-restoration project.</p><br>
<p>Fort Knox, now Fort Knox State Park or Fort Knox State Historic Site, is located on the western bank of the Penobscot River in the town of Prospect, Maine, about 5 mi from the mouth of the river. Built between 1844 and 1869, it was the first fort in Maine built entirely of granite; most previous forts used wood, earth, and stone. It is named after Major General Henry Knox, the first USA Secretary of War and Commander of Artillery during the American Revolutionary War, who at the end of his life lived not far away in Thomaston. As a virtually intact example of a mid-19th century granite coastal fortification, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1969 and declared a National Historic Landmark on December 30, 1970. Fort Knox also serves as the entry site for the observation tower of the Penobscot Narrows Bridge that opened to the public in 2007.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Background</h3><br>
<p>Local memory of the humiliation of Maine at the hands of the British during the American Revolution and again during the War of 1812 contributed to subsequent anti-British feeling in Eastern Maine. The Penobscot Expedition of 1779 aimed to force the British from New Ireland (Maine), but ended in a debacle. The Americans lost 43 ships and suffered approximately 500 casualties in the worst naval defeat for the United States prior to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Then in autumn 1814, during the War of 1812, a British naval force and soldiers sailed up the Penobscot and defeated an outnumbered American force in the Battle of Hampden. The British followed their victory by looting both Hampden and Bangor. The American defeat contributed to the post-war movement for Maine&#39;s statehood, which occurred in 1820, as Massachusetts had failed to protect the region.</p><br>
<p>The Aroostook War of 1838-1839 revived anti-British feeling and concern over the vulnerability of the region to another attack like that of 1814. Also, the Penobscot valley and Bangor were major sources of shipbuilding lumber. The response was the inclusion of the Penobscot in the Third System of coastal fortifications, and the construction of Fort Knox, a large, expensive, granite fort at the mouth of the Penobscot River.</p><br>
<h3>Construction</h3><br>
<p>Construction began in 1844 and continued until all masonry fort funding was withdrawn in 1869, with the fort mostly complete except for the emplacements on the "roof" or barbette level. Funding from Congress was intermittent, and the forts design was never fully completed despite an expenditure of $1,000,000. Granite was quarried five miles (8 km) upriver from Mount Waldo in Frankfort. The forts overall design was by Joseph G. Totten, the foremost fortification engineer of the Army Corps of Engineers in his day. Notable engineer officers supervising construction included Isaac Ingalls Stevens and Thomas L. Casey.</p><br>
<p>Besides the main fort with 64 guns, Fort Knox had two open water batteries facing the river, each equipped with a shot furnace to heat cannonballs sufficiently that they could ignite wooden ships if the ball lodged in the vessel. These furnaces became obsolete with the adoption of ironclad warships.</p><br>
<h3>Civil War</h3><br>
<p>Fort Knox never saw battle, though it was manned during times of war. During the American Civil War volunteers from Maine, mostly recruits in training before assignment to active duty, manned the fort. Thomas Lincoln Casey supervised work on the fort, including adapting the batteries to use the recently invented Rodman cannon, and oversaw its completion.</p><br>
<h3>Spanish–American War</h3><br>
<p>A regiment from Connecticut manned Fort Knox during the Spanish–American War. A plaque at the fort describes the laying of a controlled minefield in the river during this war, which Congress appropriated $3,200 for shortly after its outbreak.</p><br>
<h3>Post Spanish–American War</h3><br>
<p>The garrison was reduced to one man, the "Keeper of the Fort" or caretaker with the rank of ordnance sergeant, at the end of the war. The keeper attended to the condition and maintenance of the fort, and reported to Fort Preble in South Portland. In 1900 the fort received a permanent "torpedo storehouse" for storing naval mines (which were called torpedoes at the time) that is now the Visitor Center.</p><br>
<p>In 1923, the federal government declared the fort excess property and put its 125 acre grounds up for sale. The state of Maine bought it for $2,121. It has been administered as a Maine state historic site since 1943.</p><br>
<p>A work crew from the Ellsworth camp of the Civilian Conservation Corps, Co. 193 was deployed to transform the fort into a tourist destination. The November 1936 issue of Brann News, the camp newspaper lists work accomplished: "picnic area, reforestation, road construction, drainage in fort itself, Spring development, table and bench combinations, fireplaces, reconstruction of the retaining wall on the river side of the fort, repairing masonry work, in the interior of the fort."</p><br>
<h2>Present</h2><br>
<p>The fort today is distinguished as one of the best-preserved and most accessible forts in the United States. Virtually all of the fort is open to the public. Several period weapons are on site, including two 15-inch Rodman smoothbores in the water batteries (one remounted), an 8-inch Rodman converted rifle near the parking lot, a 10-inch Rodman smoothbore in the fort, and several 24-pounder flank howitzers. Some of the flank howitzers are mounted on original carriages; "Fort Monroe 1862" can be seen on the bronze plates of these carriages. Remounted 15-inch Rodman guns are rare, as they weigh 50,000 pounds. They were the largest weapon produced in quantity of the Civil War era.</p><br>
<h2>Friends of Fort Knox</h2><br>
<p>The Friends of Fort Knox, a nonprofit group formed in the 1990s, has been responsible for many fort repairs and improvements. Friends of Fort Knox projects include the transformation of the Torpedo Storage Shed into the Visitor and Education Center, restoration of the Officers Quarters, installation of interpretive panels, repair of Battery A powder magazine, restoration and display of four 24-pound flank defense howitzers, repair and opening of the enlisted mens quarters, cistern, rooms and extensive masonry repair.</p><br>
<p>The Friends reached an agreement with the State Department of Conservation to take over day-to-day operations of the Fort, and began doing so on April 15, 2012. The State retains ownership of the fort as part of the agreement. The lease runs through 2015 and requires the Friends to be responsible for all maintenance of the grounds as well as the interior and exterior of buildings on the property. The Friends may also improve or alter the fort as long as any changes are consistent with the law.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in 2012 the Friends were authorized to set the entrance fee to the fort, with the approval of the Bureau of Parks and Lands, with such fees consistent with the goal of keeping entry affordable for Maine residents. In exchange, the Friends keep 85 percent of entrance fee revenue, with the rest going to the State General Fund.</p><br>
<h2>In the media</h2><br>
<h3>Television</h3><br>
<p>Fort Knox was featured as one of the haunted locations on the paranormal TV series Most Terrifying Places in America in an episode titled "Cursed Towns" that aired on the Travel Channel in 2018.</p><br>
<p>The Travel Channel&#39;s television show Destination Fear filmed at the abandoned fort for the third episode of their third season (2021).</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>The Edith Farnsworth House, formerly the Farnsworth House, is a historical house designed and constructed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe between 1945 and 1951. The house was constructed as a one-room weekend retreat in a rural setting in Plano, Illinois, about 60 miles  southwest of Chicago&#39;s downtown. The steel and glass house was commissioned by Edith Farnsworth.</p><br>
<p>Mies created a 1,500-square-foot (140 m) structure that is widely recognized as an exemplar of International Style of architecture. The retreat was designated a National Historic Landmark in 2006, after being listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004. The house is owned and operated as a house museum by the National Trust for Historic Preservation.</p><br>
<p>In celebration of the 2018 Illinois Bicentennial, the Farnsworth House was selected as one of the Illinois 200 great places by the American Institute of Architects Illinois component (AIA Illinois) and was recognized by USA Today Travel magazine, as one of AIA Illinois&#39; selections for Illinois "25 Must See Buildings".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ludwig Mies van der Rohe was retained by Farnsworth to design a weekend retreat during a dinner party in 1945. The wealthy client wanted to build a very special work of modern architecture, however, toward the end of construction, a dispute arose between architect and client that interfered with completion of the building.</p><br>
<p>Farnsworth had purchased the wooded, nine-acre riverfront property from the publisher of the Chicago Tribune, Robert R. McCormick. Mies developed the design in time for it to be included in an exhibition on his work at the Museum of Modern Art in New York in 1947. After completion of design, the project was placed on hold awaiting an inheritance from an ailing aunt of Farnsworth. Mies was to act as the general contractor as well as architect. Work began in 1950 and was substantially completed in 1951. The commission was an ideal one for any architect, but was marred by a very publicized dispute between Farnsworth and Mies that began near the end of construction. The total cost of the house was $74,000 in 1951 ($734,635 in 2020 dollars). A cost overrun of $15,600 over the initially approved construction budget of $58,400, was due to escalating material prices resulting from inflationary commodities speculation (in anticipation of demand arising from the mobilization for the Korean War). Near the completion of construction, the architect filed a lawsuit for non-payment of $28,173 in construction costs. The owner then filed a counter suit for damages due to alleged malpractice. The architects attorneys proved that Farnsworth had approved the plans and budget increases, and the court ordered the owner to pay her bills. Farnsworths malpractice accusations were dismissed as unsubstantiated. It was a bitter and hollow victory for Mies, considering the painful publicity that followed.</p><br>
<p>Writing about the conflict in 1998, author Alice T. Friedman asserted that "here is no evidence to suggest that sought to have her behavior challenged by the inner logic of Mies&#39;s unyielding architectural vision; on the contrary, she seems to have had a clear idea about how she wanted to live and she expected the architect to respect her views... he soon discovered that what Mies wanted, and what he had thought he had found in her, was a patron who would put her budget and her needs aside in favor of his own goals and dreams as an architect."</p><br>
<h2>Encroachment and sale</h2><br>
<p>In 1968, the local highway department condemned a 2 acre portion of the property adjoining the house for construction of a raised highway bridge over the Fox River, encroaching upon the original setting of the design. Farnsworth sued to stop the project, but lost the court case. She sold the house in 1972, retiring to her villa in Italy.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, the Edith Farnsworth House was purchased by British property magnate, art collector, and architectural aficionado Peter Palumbo. He removed the bronze screen enclosure of the porch, added air conditioning, electric heat, extensive landscaping, and his art collections to the grounds, including sculptures by Andy Goldsworthy, Anthony Caro, and Richard Serra. At the time, the interior was furnished with furniture Mies designed in the 1930s, but produced more recently by Knoll, as well as designs by Mies&#39; grandson, Dirk Lohan, a Chicago architect Palumbo commissioned specifically for the house.</p><br>
<p>In 2001, Palumbo struck a deal with the state of Illinois, which agreed to buy the house for $7 million and open it full-time to the public, but state officials withdrew from the deal in early 2003, saying $7 million was too much to spend at a time of financial crisis.</p><br>
<p>After owning the property for 31 years, Palumbo removed the art and put the property up for sale with Sotheby&#39;s in 2003, raising serious concerns about the future of the building. Preservationists and contributors from around the world, including the Friends of the Farnsworth House, began a concerted preservation and fund-raising effort to keep the house on its original site. With this financial support, the National Trust for Historic Preservation and Landmarks Illinois were able to purchase the house in December 2003 for a reported $7.5 million. Now operated as a house museum, the Farnsworth House is open to the public, with tours conducted by the National Trust. The house is listed in the National Register and is designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the Interior.</p><br>
<h2>Configuration</h2><br>
<p>The essential characteristics of the house are immediately apparent. The extensive use of clear floor-to-ceiling glass opens the interior to its natural surroundings to an extreme degree. Two distinctly expressed horizontal slabs, which form the roof and the floor, sandwich an open space for living. The slab edges are defined by exposed steel structural members painted pure white. The house is elevated 5 ft above a flood plain by eight wide flange steel columns which are attached to the sides of the floor and ceiling slabs. The slab ends extend beyond the column supports, creating cantilevers. A third floating slab, an attached terrace, acts as a transition between the living area and the ground. The house is accessed by two sets of wide steps connecting ground to terrace and then to porch.</p><br>
<p>Mies found the large open exhibit halls of the turn of the century to be very much in character with his sense of the industrial era. Here he applied the concept of an unobstructed space that is flexible for use by people. The interior appears to be a single open room, its space ebbing and flowing around two wood blocks; one a wardrobe cabinet and the other containing a kitchen, toilet, and fireplace block (the "core"). The larger fireplace-kitchen core seems to be a separate house nesting within the larger glass house. The building is essentially one large room filled with freestanding elements that provide subtle differentiation within an open space, implied but not dictated, zones for sleeping, cooking, dressing, eating, and sitting. Very private areas such as toilets, and mechanical rooms are enclosed within the core. Drawings recently made public by the Museum of Modern Art indicate that the architect provided ceiling details that allow for the addition of curtain tracks that would allow privacy separations of the open spaces into three "rooms".</p><br>
<p>Mies applied this space concept, with variations, to his later buildings, most notably at Crown Hall, his Illinois Institute of Technology campus masterpiece. The notion of a single room that can be freely used or zoned in any way, with flexibility to accommodate changing uses, free of interior supports, enclosed in glass and supported by a minimum of structural framing located at the exterior, is the architectural ideal that defines Mies&#39; American career. The Farnsworth House is significant as his first complete realization of this ideal, a prototype for his vision of what modern architecture in an era of technology should be.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture as an expression of the times</h2><br>
<p>The Farnsworth House addresses basic issues about the relationship between the individual and his society. Mies viewed the technology-driven modern era in which an ordinary individual exists as largely beyond ones control. But he believed the individual can and should exist in harmony with the culture of ones time for successful fulfillment. His career was a long and patient search for an architecture that would be a true expression of the essential soul of his epoch, the Holy Grail of German Modernism. He perceived our epoch as the era of industrial mass production, a civilization shaped by the forces of rapid technological development. Mies wanted to use architecture as a tool to help reconcile the individual spirit with the new mass society in which the individual exists.</p><br>
<p>His answer to the issue is to accept the need for an orderly framework as necessary for existence, while making space for the freedom needed by the individual human spirit to flourish. He created buildings with free and open space within a minimal framework, using expressed structural columns. He did not believe in the use of architecture for social engineering of human behavior, as many other modernists did, but his architecture does represent ideals and aspirations. His mature design work is a physical expression of his understanding of the modern epoch. He provides the occupants of his buildings with flexible and unobstructed space in which to fulfill themselves as individuals, despite their anonymous condition in the modern industrial culture. The materials of his buildings, industrial manufactured products such as mill-formed steel and plate glass, certainly represent the character of the modern era, but he counterbalances these with traditional luxuries such as Roman travertine and exotic wood veneers as valid parts of modern life. Mies accepted the problems of industrial society as facts to be dealt with, and offered his idealized vision of how technology may be made beautiful and support the individual as well. He suggests the downsides of technology, decried by late nineteenth century critics such as John Ruskin, can be solved with human creativity, and shows us how in the architecture of this house.</p><br>
<p>Reconnecting the individual with nature is one of the great challenges of an urbanized society. The 60 acre rural site offered Mies an opportunity to bring the human relationship to nature into the forefront. Here he highlights the individual&#39;s connection to nature through the medium of a synthetic shelter. Mies said: "We should attempt to bring nature, houses, and the human being to a higher unity.” Glass walls and open interior space are the features that create an intense connection with the outdoor environment, while providing a framework reduces opaque exterior walls to a minimum. The careful site design and integration of the exterior environment represents a concerted effort to achieve an architecture wedded to its natural context.</p><br>
<p>Mies conceived the building as an indoor-outdoor architectural shelter simultaneously independent of and intertwined with the domain of nature. Mies did not build on the flood-free upland portions of the site, choosing instead to tempt the dangerous forces of nature by building directly on the flood plain near the edge of the river. Philip Johnson referred to this type of experience of nature as "safe danger". The enclosed space and porch are elevated five feet on a raised floor platform, just slightly above the 100-year flood level, with a large intermediate terrace level.</p><br>
<p>The house has a distinctly independent personality, yet also evokes strong feelings of a connection to the land. The levels of the platforms restate the multiple levels of the site, in a kind of poetic architectural rhyme, not unlike the horizontal balconies and rocks do at Wright&#39;s Fallingwater.</p><br>
<p>The house was anchored to the site in the cooling shadow of a large and majestic black maple (which was removed in 2013 due to age and damage). As Mies often did, the entrance is located on the sunny side, facing the river instead of the street, moving visitors around corners, and revealing views of the house and site from various angles as they approach the front door. The simple elongated cubic form of the house is parallel to the flow of the river, and the terrace platform is slipped downstream in relation to the elevated porch and living platform. Outdoor living spaces were designed to be extensions of the indoor space, with an open terrace and a screened porch (the screens have been removed). Yet the synthetic element always remains clearly distinct from the natural by its geometric forms that are highlighted by the choice of white as their primary color.</p><br>
<h2>Integration with nature</h2><br>
<h3>Natural setting</h3><br>
<p>The Farnsworth House sits isolated on a floodplain that faces the Fox River, establishing the architect&#39;s concept of simple living. Open views from all sides of the building help enlarge the living space area and aid flow between the living space and its natural surroundings.</p><br>
<p>Due to the floodplain, the Farnsworth House stands as an independent structure; construction materials include steel, concrete, natural stone, and glass. The steel, painted white, creates the structure that supports the floor and ceiling slabs. They are composed of concrete, along with radiant coil set in the floor used for heating purposes. The remainder of the exterior consists of the 1/4-inch-thick glass panels serving as walls.</p><br>
<h3>Flooding</h3><br>
<p>Due to the Farnsworth House&#39;s location in the Fox River floodplain, the site often experiences low-level flooding. Despite the precautions taken in the design, waters have risen substantially inside of the structure multiple times in excess of FEMA 500-year flood levels.</p><br>
<p>1954: three years after the completion of the House, flood waters rose over 2&#39; in the interior living space.</p><br>
<p>1996: a Mesoscale Convective System with rainfall of over 16" caused widespread flash flooding in the region. The water rose to over 5&#39; on the interior of the Farnsworth House, causing significant damage to utilities, wood veneers, glass, and furnishings.</p><br>
<p>1997: approximately 2" of water made it into the interior of the structure. After this event, Peter Palumbo and Dirk Lohan embarked on a costly restoration project (estimated at $500,000).</p><br>
<p>2008: the house was flooded by rains from the remnants of Hurricane Ike. Water levels reached approximately 18 in above the floor and the 5 foot stilts upon which the house rests. Much of the furniture was saved by elevating it above the flood waters. The house was closed to the public for the remainder of 2008 for repairs and reopened for public visitation in spring 2009.</p><br>
<p>The National Trust for Historic Preservation has been developing a flood mitigation plan to deal with the ongoing threat to the structure posed by the river.</p><br>
<h2>Other structures</h2><br>
<h3>Barnsworth Gallery</h3><br>
<p>It was announced in 2011 that the Illinois Institute of Technology was going to build a permanent exhibition space for the wardrobe that Edith Farnsworth commissioned for the Farnsworth House. The wardrobe was extensively damaged in the 1996, 1997, and 2008 floods, with its large size rendering any possible evacuation attempt costly and difficult. In an attempt to protect the wardrobe, curators of the Farnsworth House decided to have the wardrobe put on permanent display near the visitor center on the site, which is well above the 500-year flood plain. Under the direction of Professor Frank Flury, students of the Illinois Institute of Technology designed and constructed the Barnsworth Gallery to house the wardrobe and serve as an exhibition space.</p><br>
<h2>Criticism and acclaim</h2><br>
<p>The building design received accolades in the architectural press, resulting in swarms of uninvited visitors trespassing on the property to glimpse this latest Mies building. As a result of the accusations contained in Edith Farnsworth&#39;s lawsuit, the house soon became a prop in the larger national social conflicts of the McCarthy era. The weekend house became a lightning rod for anti-modernist publications, exemplified in the April 1953 issue of House Beautiful, which attacked it as a "communist-inspired effort" to supplant traditional American styles. Large areas of glass wall, flat roofs, purging of ornament, and a perceived lack of traditional warmth and coziness were characteristics of the International Style that were particular talking points of attack.</p><br>
<p>The poor energy efficiency of the Farnsworth House has been widely discussed as well. Farnsworth herself expressed dismay at the house&#39;s poor temperature control and tendency to attract insects when illuminated at night.</p><br>
<p>Nonetheless, the Farnsworth House has continued to receive critical acclaim as a masterpiece of the modernist style, and Mies went on to receive the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his contribution to American architecture and culture. Architect and critic Philip Johnson openly confessed how he was inspired by the design in the construction of his own Glass House in New Canaan, Connecticut in 1947 as his personal residence.</p><br>
<p>In the twenty-first century, Pulitzer Prize-winning architectural critics Paul Goldberger and Blair Kamin have both declared the house a masterpiece of modern architecture. Its timeless quality is reflected by the reverent fascination in the minimalist house shown by a new generation of design professionals and enthusiasts.</p><br>
<p>In 2021, the New York Times named it as one of the 25 most significant works of architecture since World War II.</p><br>
<h2>Rededication</h2><br>
<p>On November 17, 2021, Edith Farnsworths birthday, a rededication of the house on its 70th anniversary was livestreamed on its Facebook and Instagram pages, during which it was officially renamed the Edith Farnsworth House in recognition of its owners contribution to its benchmark design as well as her achievements as a research physician, classical violinist, poet, translator, and patron of the fine arts. "We hope this seemingly simple act of inserting her first name has the larger effect of inserting her into the ongoing history of modern architecture," said Scott Mehaffey, executive director of the Edith Farnsworth House.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>June Finfer’s Glass House was produced in New York in 2010.</p><br>
<p>In 2016, the movie, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, featured a house modeled after the Farnsworth House. The follow-up film Justice League also features the same house in a trailer released at the 2017 San Diego Comic-Con.</p><br>
<p>In January 2019, writer-director Richard Press and HanWay Films announced an upcoming Farnsworth House film project starring Elizabeth Debicki as Dr. Edith Farnsworth and Ralph Fiennes as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.</p><br>
<p>Vale Cemetery is a historic rural cemetery and the largest cemetery in Schenectady, New York. It opened on 21 October 1857, when the Rev. Julius Seely dedicated what was then termed "the Vale". It has tripled its size since opening and today it holds the remains of some of the most notable persons in Upstate New York. In 1973, a 35-acre tract of unused and abandoned cemetery land around the ponds of Cowhorn Creek was sold to the city of Schenectady to form Vale Park.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery and park were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2004.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>By 1850 the old public burying ground on Green and Front streets was being overrun with weeds and was described as being unsanitary. The Common Council resolved on 2 July 1856 to develop the grounds of the old Hospital Farm on Nott Terrace as a 38 acre public cemetery. On 16 June 1857, Mayor Benjamin V. S. Vedder appointed a committee to oversee the work.</p><br>
<p>To provide access from a main street, Dr Eliphalet Nott, the President of Union College donated an avenue from Nott Terrace into the grounds. Later in 1863, two pieces of land were purchased from the college, creating what is now known as Vale Park. The entrance on State Street was a donation from the First Reformed Church in 1867. The cemetery was planned by Burton Thomas as a rural cemetery. It featured many winding paths and he had more than 1,000 trees planted; Cowhorn Creek was dammed to create a lake within the grounds. The cemetery has since expanded and covers approximately 100 acre and holds some 33,000 burials. The cemetery includes the historic African-American Burying Ground. Since 2001, city residents have held annual commemorations of Juneteenth, celebrating emancipation and the end of the American Civil War; particularly since 2006, some have been held at the Burying Ground.</p><br>
<h2>Vale Cemetery Association</h2><br>
<p>In February 1858, the Common Council declared that it could not continue to run the cemetery at the taxpayers expense and that the cemetery must be taken up by private owners. Fourteen of the lot holders formed the Vale Cemetery Association and bought the 38 acre from the Common Council. They paid the sum of $800, and announced that some land, known as the Potters Field, would be set aside for the burial of the poor. In 2007 as part of the Schenectady Colonial celebrations, the Association held a dinner to celebrate the 150th anniversary of the cemetery.</p><br>
<h2>Vale mapping project</h2><br>
<p>In late 2006, interest in mapping the cemetery was indicated by several people connected with the cemetery. They developed the Vale mapping project. The project started in spring 2007, using GPS and techniques used in England and Scotland to locate each grave. The group intends to map all the graves and document them, to establish a full record before there is further damage or deterioration of many of the historic memorials.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>The information on notable burials has been extracted and précised from Katherine Olney Delain&#39;s Biographies of Notables at Vale Cemetery (2005).</p><br>
<h3>Engineers and scientists</h3><br>
<p>Ernst Alexanderson – came to the United States in 1901 to meet electrical wizard Charles Steinmetz. Developed the Alexanderson alternator, the first radio transmitter used to broadcast the human voice. Dr. Alexanderson was also instrumental in the development of television. Over his lifetime, Dr. Alexanderson received 344 patents, the last awarded in 1973 at age 94.</p><br>
<p>Ellis Family – The father and two sons were presidents of Schenectady Locomotive Works, later to become American Locomotive Company.</p><br>
<p>Ernst Julius Berg (1871–1941) – mathematician and electro-physicist. A pioneer of radio, he produced the first two-way radio voice program in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Clute Brothers – produced the gun turret motors for the first ironclad ship, the USS Monitor.</p><br>
<p>William D. Coolidge (1873–1975) – inventor of the modern X-ray tube, head of General Electric Development Center. He also developed the sodium vapor lamp and was holder of 83 patents.</p><br>
<p>Philip Dodge – inventor of the Linotype machine</p><br>
<p>Henry Ramsey – N.Y.S. engineer and surveyor in the 1830s, worked on the Erie Canal</p><br>
<p>Christian Steenstrup (1873–1955) – born in Denmark emigrated to the US in 1894. Designed the Monitor Top Refrigerator while at General Electric, held over 100 patents.</p><br>
<p>Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1865–1923) – mathematician, inventor, and electrical engineer, was a pioneer and considered the leading electrical engineer in the United States during his lifetime. He was also a professor of electrical engineering and electrophysics at Union College, Schenectady.</p><br>
<p>Silas Watson Ford – paleontologist who made some of the most important discoveries of the 19th century about the Cambrian Period. Awarded an honorary master&#39;s degree by Union College in 1879.</p><br>
<h3>Military</h3><br>
<p>James S. Casey (1833–1899) – awarded Medal of Honor for action on 8 January 1877 at Wolf Mountain, Montana during the Battle of Wolf Mountain during the Black Hills War.</p><br>
<p>William Horsfall – as captain, Company E, 18th New York Infantry. The Grand Army of the Republic post in Schenectady was named for him. He died leading a charge during the Battle of South Mountain, September 14, 1862.</p><br>
<p>Charles Lewis – fought in the Civil War and witnessed 1865 assassination of President Abraham Lincoln in 1865</p><br>
<p>David S. Proper – volunteer fire-fighter who enlisted in the 134th New York during the Civil War. He was killed at Gettysburg 1 July 1863. Donations from other firefighters paid for his body to be returned and buried here.</p><br>
<p>George W. Thompkins – awarded Medal of Honor for action on 25 March 1865 at the Battle of Fort Stedman</p><br>
<h3>Politicians and government</h3><br>
<p>Henry S. De Forest (1847–1917) – 40th and 42nd Mayor of Schenectady in 1885 and then 1889 and then USA congressman (1911–1913)</p><br>
<p>John DeGraff (1783–1848) – Fifteenth Mayor of Schenectady in 1836 and USA House of Representatives 1827–1829 and again 1837–1839</p><br>
<p>Henry Glen (1739–1814) – first Town Clerk of Schenectady (1767–1809), member of New York Provincial Congress and New York State Assembly, New York Militia and Continental Army officer in American Revolution, member of United States House of Representatives, 1793–1801. (Location of grave not known. Presumed buried in First Dutch Churchyard. Remains there later relocated to Vale. Not all gravestones transported, so exact burial site not known.)</p><br>
<p>Oswald D. Heck – elected to the New York State Assembly in 1937. Speaker of the house from 1939–1959. There is a gavel on his tombstone.</p><br>
<p>Mordecai Myers (1776–1871) – 21st Mayor of Schenectady</p><br>
<p>Harmanus Peek (1782–1838) – Early congressman and Representative 1819–1821)</p><br>
<p>Peter Rowe (1807–1876) – 20th Mayor of Schenectady (1846–1850) and later USA Representative (1853–1855)</p><br>
<p>Jackson Samuel – New York State Supreme Court Justice</p><br>
<h3>Sports</h3><br>
<p>Charles "Chick" Evans (1889–1916) – Pitcher for the Boston Braves 1909–1910. his win–loss record for 1910 was 1–1, his run average was 5.23.</p><br>
<p>Frank E Wickware – A World War I veteran, pitched for the Mohawk Giants in the Negro leagues. Once defeated baseball Hall of Fame member Walter Johnson</p><br>
<h3>Various</h3><br>
<p>Francis Dana – Activist in the Underground Railway and contributor to the Albany Abolitionist newspaper.</p><br>
<p>Eliphalet Nott, D.D., L.L.D. – Fourth President of Union College, serving 1804–1866. He established it as a national center for learning.</p><br>
<p>Robert Furman – Local businessman who donated land to form Central Park and helped establish Vale Cemetery. He introduced trolleys to Schenectady.</p><br>
<p>Westinghouse Family – George Westinghouse was well known in the farming industry having invented the thresher. George Westinghouse Jr., competitor of Thomas Edison, developed innovations in the electrical and railroad industries. He and his wife are buried in Arlington National Cemetery.</p><br>
<p>James Cuff Swits – (known as Indian Jim), a Mohawk man more than 8 feet tall. He was well respected for his knowledge of herbs. A friend carved Indian Jim&#39;s likeness into his gravestone; he was buried at Potters Field.</p><br>
<h2>Burial facts</h2><br>
<p>The first burial was of four-year-old Noah Vibbard Van Vorst.</p><br>
<p>The oldest burial is that of Elias Van Guysling who died in 1695. His remains were relocated from the family plot on Van Slyk Island when General Electric enlarged their site.</p><br>
<p>The oldest grave marker is that of Jan Maybee, of Mabee House, who died in 1725.</p><br>
<h2>Sections</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery is divided into several sections, each having its own historic importance:</p><br>
<p>Veterans Section – veterans from the Civil War and Spanish–American War are buried here, as well as later ones.</p><br>
<p>First Reformed Church – The graves in this section predate the formation of Vale Cemetery. They were moved in 1879 from various small First Reformed Church cemeteries scattered throughout the Stockade. The oldest marker is that of Jan Mabee, survivor of the Schenectady Massacre, who died in 1725.</p><br>
<p>African Section (now called the African-American Burying Ground) – the original African Cemetery was located on Hamilton Hill. Judge Alonzo C. Paige purchased that area for real estate development. He purchased space in Vale and had the remains re-interred at his expense. His action protected the graves, as people had disturbed the graves on the hill by removing sandy soil for cement making.</p><br>
<p>Union College Plot – reserved for full professors of Union College, their spouses and unmarried children.</p><br>
<p>Green Street Section – represents the memorial style c. 1701–1830. The stones were removed from the old cemetery and reset here in 1879.</p><br>
<p>Christian Temple</p><br>
<p>German Methodist – this area was used by descendants of the early 18th-century German Palatine communities in the Mohawk Valley</p><br>
<p>Potters Field Area – The original area set aside for the burial of the poor</p><br>
<p>Old Ladies Home – Site for residents of the Home for the Friendless, a charity set up by Urania Nott, wife of Eliphalet Nott, the first President of Union College.</p><br>
<h2>Notable structures</h2><br>
<p>Christian Temple and GME (German Methodist Episcopal Church).</p><br>
<p>The Haigh mausoleum is adorned with a statue of a dog named Lion. The legend is that after his master died, Lion came to the mausoleum daily where he was cared for by cemetery staff. The statue is in Lion&#39;s memory.</p><br>
<p>Stanford Mausoleum – The family raised eight children, the most notable being Leland Stanford. In early life Leland was an attorney. He opened an office in Port Washington, Wisconsin, but shortly thereafter a fire destroyed his office and a $3,000 library. Leland decided to head west, where he joined his brothers in business. He made a fortune in the railroad industry, being a principal in the building of the transcontinental railroad. Stanford and his wife Jane founded Stanford University in memory of their son Leland Jr., who died young.</p><br>
<p>A Celtic Cross.</p><br>
<p>Holland Mausoleum.</p><br>
<p>Revolutionary War Memorial.</p><br>
<p>The Superintendents House (1889–1890) and Caretakers Cottage are listed as contributing buildings to the Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places. The North Terrace Gate, State Street Gate, and Brandywine Avenue Gate are listed as contributing structures.</p><br>
<p>Conference House  is a stone house in the Tottenville neighborhood of Staten Island in New York City. Built by Captain Christopher Billopp some time before 1680, it is located in Conference House Park near Wards Point, the southernmost tip of New York state, which became known as "Billops Point" in the 18th century.</p><br>
<p>The Staten Island Peace Conference, an unsuccessful attempt to find a swift negotiated end to the American Revolutionary War, was hosted there by his heir and grandson, Colonel Christopher Billop, on September 11, 1776. The house, a National and New York City Landmark, is located at Conference House Park overlooking Raritan Bay. The house is also located within the Ward&#39;s Point Conservation Area, separately added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>Captain Christopher Billopp, after years of distinguished service in the Royal Navy, came to America in 1674. He was granted a land patent on 932 acres (3.7 km) on the southernmost tip of Staten Island. Archaeological evidence, including shell middens and digs conducted by The American Museum of Natural History in 1895, have shown that the Raritan band of the Lenape camped in the area and used the location as a burial ground. Known as Burial Ridge, it is the largest pre-European site in New York City.</p><br>
<p>Legend holds that sovereignty of Staten Island was determined by Capt. Billopp&#39;s skill in circling it in one day, earning it for New York rather than to New Jersey. This has since been disproven and is in fact a myth.</p><br>
<p>In 1677, the fortunes of colonial service took Capt. Billopp to New Castle on the Delaware River, where he commanded the local garrison. Upon appointment of Thomas Dongan as governor of the colony of New York, he returned to Staten Island and became active in the local government. He was further rewarded by another patent, expanding his Staten Island property to 1,600 acres (6.4 km).</p><br>
<p>It is difficult to ascertain exactly when his manor house was built, but one surviving map shows that a building existed on the site of the Conference House before 1680. The house was passed down to his great grandson Christopher Billop, who was commissioned a colonel and led Loyalist forces against the Colonials in the American Revolution.</p><br>
<h2>American Revolution</h2><br>
<h3>Peace conference</h3><br>
<p>On September 11, 1776, British loyalist Colonel Christopher Billop, commander of a Tory regiment in the conflict, hosted an informal diplomatic conference aimed at finding an early end to the nascent American Revolution. Lord Howe, commander in chief of British forces in America, arranged to meet with representatives of the Continental Congress in what is known today as the Staten Island Peace Conference. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge rowed over from patriot-held Perth Amboy, New Jersey. The meeting lasted for three hours and ended with the Americans politely declining the diplomatically handcuffed Howe&#39;s offer, leading to another seven years of conflict.</p><br>
<h3>Billop&#39;s Point</h3><br>
<p>Conference House is situated on the southernmost point of New York State, at what was originally known as "Billops Point", todays Wards Point. It was from this site, where the mouth of Arthur Kill juts out into Raritan Bay, that a raid on October 25, 1779, known as "Simcoes Raid", was conducted upon patriot-held New Jersey by John Graves Simcoe, leader of the Tory unit the Queens Rangers. In A History Of The Operations Of A Partisan Corps Called The Queens Rangers, which he wrote after the war, he mentions:</p><br>
<p>The batteaux, and boats, which were appointed to be at Billops-point, so as to pass the whole over by twelve oclock at night, did not arrive till three o&#39;clock in the morning.</p><br>
<p>Billop&#39;s point is mentioned in the journal of Major André:</p><br>
<p>Oct. 25 The Regiments at Amboy received Orders to strike their tents and send them with their baggage to the waters side. Those at Staten Island had orders to leave theirs standing, and repair by 8 oclock in the evening to Billop&#39;s Point.</p><br>
<h3>Confiscation</h3><br>
<p>After the cessation of hostilities and British withdrawal from the former colonies the house was confiscated by the state of New York with no recompense to the Billop family. However, many who suffered confiscation, particularly those who were regarded as most notorious by the rebels, later received some form of compensation from the British government.</p><br>
<h2>Notable visitors</h2><br>
<p>Benjamin Franklin</p><br>
<p>John Adams</p><br>
<p>Edward Rutledge</p><br>
<p>Lord Howe</p><br>
<p>Major General Charles Grey: leader of British forces at the Paoli Massacre</p><br>
<h3>Encamped during the Revolution</h3><br>
<p>John Graves Simcoe, leader of the Queen&#39;s Rangers and the founder of Toronto.</p><br>
<p>844th Foot, later the Essex Regiment and now the Royal Anglian Regiment</p><br>
<p>Hessian</p><br>
<p>Prince Charles Regiment: Prince Charles William Ferdinand</p><br>
<h2>Conservation</h2><br>
<p>After the revolution, most of the Billops went to Canada. One hundred years after the conference the house was used as a hotel, and a rat poison factory, before subsequently being abandoned and vandalized. In 1901 Assemblyman Van Name of Richmond County, New York, introduced a bill to acquire the house and mark it for historic preservation. However, the house was not immediately recognized for preservation.</p><br>
<p>The city finally acquired the house in 1926, at which point it was in danger of being razed. The house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1966.</p><br>
<p>Kings County Savings Bank is a former bank building at 135 Broadway in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn in New York City. It is an example of French Second Empire-style architecture. Construction of the building began in 1860, to designs of William H. Willcox of Brooklyn, in partnership with prominent New York architect Gamaliel King, working as King & Willcox. The structure was continuously occupied by banks until the 1990s. The Williamsburg Art & Historical Center has operated the building since 1996.</p><br>
<p>The building became a New York City designated landmark in 1966 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Kings County Savings Bank building was built between 1860 and 1867. It is 43.5 by on the outside dimension and is constructed of Dorchester sandstone. It has three main floors, each a single large room. On the first and second floors, the main rooms contain six tall Corinthian columns, formed of cast iron, while the third floor is entirely open. The first floor retains its massive gas chandeliers and ornately carved woodwork.</p><br>
<p>Although the designer of the bank, King&#39;s partner William H. Willcox, is relatively unknown, the building is a superb example of the French Second Empire style. For example, the building displays the characteristic Mansard roof, which conceals the fourth story attic.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Kings County Savings Institution was chartered on April 10, 1860. It carried out business in a building called Washington Hall until it purchased the lot on the corner of Bedford Avenue and Broadway and erected a permanent home.</p><br>
<p>The Kings County Savings Bank has long been considered a landmark of Williamsburg. By 1900, during the construction of the Williamsburg Bridge, the neighborhood had changed, and the Bank building was already seen as an icon of "old Williamsburg." It remains one of the most important historical landmarks in Williamsburg, and was recognized by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1966, the seventh building to be so designated. It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<p>"The Kings County Savings Bank is an outstanding example of French Second Empire architecture, displaying a wealth of ornament and diverse architectural elements. A business building of imposing grandeur, the Kings County Savings Bank "represents a period of conspicuous display in which it was not considered vulgar, at least by the people in power, to boast openly of one&#39;s wealth. From its scale and general character there is nothing, on the outside, that would distinguish the Kings County Savings Bank from a millionaires mansion." (from History Preserved: New York City Landmarks & Historic Districts, Harmon H. Gladstone & Martha Dalyrmple, Simon & Schuster, 1974).</p><br>
<p>The building remained in continuous bank ownership and use for well over a century. It ceased to be used as a bank in the 1980s.</p><br>
<h2>Bank timeline</h2><br>
<p>From the public records:</p><br>
<p>April 10, 1860 &ndash; New York State chartered Kings County Savings Bank</p><br>
<p>December 31, 1968 &ndash; merge with State Union Square Savings Bank, name changed to United Mutual Savings Bank</p><br>
<p>September 24, 1982 &ndash; merge with State American Savings Bank</p><br>
<p>July 29, 1983 &ndash; converted to Federal American Savings Bank, F.S.B.</p><br>
<p>December 29, 1989 &ndash; convert to State American Savings Bank</p><br>
<p>June 12, 1992 &ndash; LID Sold To Ridgewood Savings Bank</p><br>
<p>October 20, 1995 &ndash; liquidated</p><br>
<h2>Williamsburg Art & Historical Center</h2><br>
<p>Currently the building houses the Williamsburg Art & Historical Center, a not-for profit art organization founded by artist Yuko Nii in October 1996. The Center presents art exhibitions, performances and cultural events as well as lectures, seminars and educational programs of both local and international interest. It also preserves and displays historical art and artifacts.</p><br>
<p>On July 31, 2008, John B. Manbeck, the official Brooklyn Borough Historian from 1993 to 2002, said in an article in the Brooklyn Eagle:</p><br>
<p>Art in Williamsburg has made great strides. In fact, all Williamsburg has progressed, undoubtedly because of its attraction to artists. Much of the credit must be placed on the doorstep of the director of the Williamsburg Art & Historical Center, Yuko Nii. The center operates out of the former Kings County Savings Bank Building (1867) and celebrated an infusion of a $500,000 capital funding grant from the city.</p><br>
<p>In 2009 ownership of the building was transferred to the Yuko Nii Foundation.</p><br>
<p>Angel Mounds State Historic Site , an expression of the Mississippian culture, is an archaeological site managed by the Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites that includes more than 600 acre of land about 8 mi southeast of present-day Evansville, in Vanderburgh and Warrick counties in Indiana. The large residential and agricultural community was constructed and inhabited from AD 1100 to AD 1450, and served as the political, cultural, and economic center of the Angel chiefdom. It extended within 120 mi of the Ohio River valley to the Green River in present-day Kentucky. The town had as many as 1,000 inhabitants inside the walls at its peak, and included a complex of thirteen earthen mounds, hundreds of home sites, a palisade , and other structures.</p><br>
<p>Designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964, the property also includes an interpretive center, recreations of Mississippian structures, a replica of a 1939 Works Projects Administration archaeology laboratory, and a 500 acre area away from the archaeological site that is a nature preserve. The historic site continues to preserve and relate the story of pre-contact Middle Mississippian indigenous culture on the Ohio River.</p><br>
<p>The site is named after the Angel family, who in 1852 began purchasing the farmland on which the archaeological site is located. In 1938, the Indiana Historical Society, with funding from Eli Lilly, purchased 480 acre of property to preserve it and to use it for long-term archaeological research. From 1939 to 1942, the Works Progress Administration employed more than 250 workers to excavate 120,000 ft2 of the site, which resulted in the recording and processing of 2.3 million archaeological items. After excavation was temporarily halted during World War II, work resumed in 1945 as part of the Indiana University Archaeology Field School during the summer months. In 1946, the Indiana Historical Society transferred ownership of the site to the State of Indiana. It manages the site through the Indiana State Museum. Archaeological research on Angel Mounds, once conducted through the Glenn A. Black Laboratory of Archaeology, is now overseen by the IU Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology at Indiana University Bloomington.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Origins</h3><br>
<p>For thousands of years, the area that was later organized as the eastern United States was home to a succession of native groups who settled near the rivers and used them for travel and trade. The widespread Mississippian culture, which is named in reference to its geographical origins along the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries, developed around AD 900. This culture eventually extended as far west as Oklahoma, as far north as the present-day suburbs of Saint Louis, Missouri, in southwestern Illinois, and ranging east into the Southeastern Woodlands, to present-day North Carolina and as far south as present-day Mississippi.</p><br>
<h3>Site development and decline</h3><br>
<p>The people of the Middle Mississippian culture built and lived in a community (in what became southwestern Indiana around AD 1100 and remained there until AD 1450, a period that Marjory Honerkamp defined in the 1970s as the Angel phase. The Angel phase and the Mississippian culture town are named after the Angel family, who in 1852 began purchasing farmland that included the archaeological site.</p><br>
<p>Archeologist Sherri Hilgeman and others have used the distinctive pottery produced at the Angel site and in other satellite communities in this section of the Ohio River valley to define the Angel phase as the middle period between the Emergent Mississippian Yankeetown phase (AD 750 to AD 1000) and the Terminal Mississippian Caborn-Wellborn phase (AD 1400 to AD 1700).</p><br>
<p>The Angel chiefdom (a simple hierarchy led by a chief) was the regional trading center in a group of communities within 12 mi of the Ohio River valley; it extended as far as the Green River in present-day Kentucky. The large residential and agricultural community was also the political, cultural, and economic center of the chiefdom, whose residents traded with other chiefdoms and peoples along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. The Angel community primarily inhabited an area bounded by the Ohio River to the south, the White River and its East Fork to the north, the Wabash River to the west, and the Anderson River to the east. Archaeologists have inferred that the smaller communities (villages, hamlets, farmsteads and camp sites) were politically subordinate to the main Angel site. Continuing excavations at the site have revealed new elements of the complex society.</p><br>
<p>Laborers built the main Angel site sometime after AD 1000. They also established the surrounding villages and farming areas along the Ohio River and engaged in hunting and farming on the rich bottom lands. In addition, the Mississippian culture is known for its</p><br>
<p>earthen mounds, designed in shapes including platform, conical, and ridgetop (as also seen at the largest center, Cahokia in present-day southern Illinois). Working with a variety of soils to create a stable mass, the Mississippian people built major earthworks at the Angel site. The community eventually covered about 100 acre and included thirteen mounds near the Ohio River. Some of these mounds were built for ceremonial and cosmological purposes. In addition to the mounds, the Mississippians constructed structures and a defensive palisade (stockade) made of wattle and daub with 12 ft walls and punctuated with bastions. This settlement was the largest-known town of its time in what became present-day Indiana. Scholars believe the town may have had as many as 1,000 inhabitants at its peak, which Indiana archeologist Glenn Albert Black estimated to be about 200 households.</p><br>
<p>Archaeologists believe that the Angel community existed from around AD 1100 to around AD 1450, although estimates for the site vary from AD 1000 to AD 1600. Carbon dating of the community indicate it was developed as early as AD 1200 and as late as AD 1500.</p><br>
<p>The Mississippian people abandoned the Angel site long before European contact; however, it is not known for certain why the Angel civilization declined. Scholars have speculated that it was potentially due to environmental factors, such as an extended regional drought that reduced the maize (corn) surpluses, and resulted in increasingly scarce natural resources that had once enabled the concentration of population. In addition, the people may have been overhunting, and reducing forests through the consumption of wood for constructing buildings and making fires. Archaeologists also theorize that with the collapse of the Angel chiefdom by AD 1450, many of the site&#39;s inhabitants relocated downriver to the confluence of the Ohio and Wabash rivers. A separate Late Mississippian cultural group subsequently emerged that archeologists named the Terminal Mississippian Caborn-Welborn phase (AD 1400 to AD 1700).</p><br>
<h3>Subsequent settlement</h3><br>
<p>Angel Mounds scholars believe that the Mississippians abandoned the site by AD 1400, and the Ohio River valley by AD 1650. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, groups of other native peoples, such as the Shawnee, the Miami, and other historical tribes moved into the Ohio River valley from the east over the next 150 years. European explorers and traders subsequently arrived in the area. Anglo-American settlers who migrated to the area from the east and south remained to farm the land. Both the Native Americans and other settlers were attracted by the rich soil and temperate growing season.</p><br>
<p>Mathias Angel (1819–1899) was among these settlers. In 1852 he began purchasing farmland that also included the archaeological site. The Angel Mounds Historic Site is named after the Angel family and their descendants.</p><br>
<h3>Site acquisition</h3><br>
<p>In May 1931, Warren K. Moorehead, a nationally known archaeologist from Ohio State University and the Peabody Foundation; Eli Lilly, who became president of Eli Lilly and Company in 1932 and served as the president of the Indiana Historical Society from 1932 to 1947; and Glenn A. Black and E. Y. Guernsey, Society employees and archaeologists, visited the Angel site as part of a tour to assess Indianas archaeological sites. Black, who served as the Societys director of archaeology and from 1939 to 1964 supervised excavation and field schools at the Angel site, thought that the mounds would provide an opportunity to conduct a long-term study of a single archaeological site. Although individuals had been surveying the area and digging at the Angel site prior to the beginning of its official excavation in 1939, the archaeological findings were not properly documented. Some individuals also came to the site simply to collect relics.</p><br>
<p>In 1938, the Indiana Historical Society purchased 480 acre of property from the Angel family descendants and others to protect the archaeological site from destruction. The mounds were in danger of being destroyed due to construction of a planned levee and real estate development. Eli Lilly in his role as a philanthropist interested in Indiana&#39;s prehistory, provided the funds for the purchase.</p><br>
<h3>Early excavation</h3><br>
<p>Initial efforts in 1938–39 focused on surveying and clearing the main archaeological site and an outlying camp. From 1939 to 1942, as a project financed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt&#39;s New Deal, the Works Projects Administration employed more than 250 workers under the direction of Indiana archeologist Glenn A. Black to excavate 120,000 ft2 of the site. These efforts resulted in the recording and processing of 2.3 million archaeological items. Excavation was temporarily halted during World War II, but resumed in 1945 as part of the Indiana University Archaeology Field School during the summer months.</p><br>
<p>In 1946, the Indiana Historical Society transferred ownership of the property to the State of Indiana, but retained the rights to excavate the site. Black remained on the property as its caretaker. Between 1958 and 1962, two National Science Foundation grants provided financial support to assess geophysical applications at the site, including use of a proton magnetometer to trace segments of the site&#39;s palisade (stockade) walls that were not visible from the surface.</p><br>
<h3>State historic site</h3><br>
<p>Angel Mounds was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1964, the same year that the Indiana Historical Society transferred its archeological excavation rights to Indiana University. The sites original purchase was later augmented by Elda Clayton Hertss donation of 20 acre containing an early Woodland period mound.</p><br>
<p>The Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites is the present-day manager of the site. Research on Angel Mounds is conducted through the Glenn A. Black Laboratory of Archaeology, founded in 1965 at Indiana University Bloomington and named in honor of Glenn Albert Black, the archaeologist who conducted excavations at Angel Mounds from 1939 to 1964, and brought the site to national attention. Since 1945, Indiana University has continued to conduct an archaeology field school at the site during the summer months.</p><br>
<p>The Angel Mounds State Historic Site, a National Historic Landmark, is recognized as one of the best-preserved prehistoric sites in the United States for understanding Middle Mississippian culture along the Ohio River, and Native American culture before contact with Europeans. The site occupies more than 600 acre of land and includes an interpretive center (opened to the public in 1972), recreations of Mississippian structures, and a replica of a 1939 WPA archaeology laboratory. A 500 acre area of the property, which does not include the archaeological site, has a nature preserve and recreational trails. Archaeological excavations at Angel Mounds State Historic Site continue through Indiana University&#39;s field school.</p><br>
<h2>Setting</h2><br>
<p>The Angel site was the regional trading center in a group of associated settlements and hamlets within a 70 mi radius. The community faces south across a narrow channel toward the island and what is present-day Kentucky. The channel and slough, which existed during the time that the archaeological site was inhabited, created a quiet backwater that surrounded the town on the north, east, and west sides. The slough and channel to the Ohio River provided easy transit for canoes, as well as a source for freshwater fishing, potable water, and bathing.</p><br>
<p>(Until nearly the end of the nineteenth century, the Ohio River was clear and potable. In the mid-twentieth century, the channel was known as an excellent fishing area.) When the site was first settled, the slough was deeper and the Mississippian people kept it cleared of brush and trees; however, by 1939, when official excavation of the Angel site began, the stream had dried-up and the channel had eroded, providing a land surface that was often stable enough to walk across.</p><br>
<p>The Mississippians found the site along the Ohio River ideal for agricultural purposes. Annual spring floods regularly replenished the nutrients in the soil and allowed cultivation of crops that included maize (corn), beans, and squash. The fertile soil enabled production of surplus crops, which the Mississippian people used for trade and to support a higher density population that developed artisan and craft specialties such as pottery.</p><br>
<h2>Mounds</h2><br>
<p>The site includes six large platform mounds (Mounds A through F), five smaller mounds (Mounds H through L), and at least one large plaza. Mound G, which is older than the others, may not have been part of the Angel phase group. A defensive palisade with bastions nearly surrounded the approximately 100 acre town. Mounds A (Central Mound), E, and F (Temple Mound), the largest mounds at the site, are truncate pyramidal earthen structures with either a square or rectangular base. Mound A and Mound F, constructed about AD 1050 to 1100, were used until the Mississippians abandoned the site about AD 1400, and then burned.</p><br>
<h3>Mound A (Central Mound)</h3><br>
<p>Mound A, also called the Central Mound, is the largest and highest (44 ft) in the complex. It also among the largest prehistoric structures in the eastern United States. Central Mound contains three levels with a smaller conical mound in the southeast corner of the upper level. The base mound is 644 ft long and 335 ft wide.</p><br>
<p>Laborers carried 67,785 yd3 of dirt in baskets from the chute (a waterway along the south side of the town) to create the mound. The lower terrace, measuring 100 ft by 100 ft, is on the south side of the mound. The upper terrace is 28 ft above the surrounding area. Based on reports from early European explorers in the southeastern United States who encountered active Mississippian culture villages, this mound was likely the residence of the hereditary chief of the town and the surrounding communities. (It is generally believed that upper-class members of society would live on the highest mounds, while lower-class members inhabited smaller living spaces.) The State of Indiana constructed a modern stairway ascending the mound to protect it from erosion of pedestrian traffic. Archeological evidence suggests there may have been a log stairway in prehistoric times.</p><br>
<h3>Mound F (Temple Mound)</h3><br>
<p>Mound F, the only mound that is completed excavated, was a platform mound measuring 235 ft by 239 ft and 4.26 m in height. Excavations showed that the mound was built in several construction phases with different occupation episodes on the different levels. The episodes of occupation include a structure at the original ground layer, followed by another structure on what is known as "occupational layer 2". This was then covered by the "inner mound surface", a layer of mound fill and more structures. The structures on this level seemed to have been domestic in nature. The next layer of mound fill is known as the "primary mound surface" and was surmounted by a large rectangular structure with at least two rooms and anterooms, or porticoes, appended to it. The final layer of mound fill is the "secondary mound surface". Due to the amount of historic period soil disturbance on the summit it is unclear if any structures sat atop this phase. Mound F was destroyed during the process of its excavation and subsequently re-constructed to show its original appearance. The reconstruction features a temple structure surrounded by a palisade and stairs leading to the summit.</p><br>
<h3>Mound E</h3><br>
<p>Mound E, the third largest mound, measures 160 ft by 140 ft. Its upper platform is 45 ft by 40 ft. Because this earthen mound was never cultivated, it is considered to be the site&#39;s best example of a truncate mound.</p><br>
<h2>Palisade</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological excavation revealed a set of two palisade (stockade) walls. The outer palisade surrounded the perimeter of the town with the Ohio River acting as a barrier on the south side. An inner palisade bisected the interior of the site. An entrance to the town was believed to have been on southwest corner of the palisade, based on archaeological findings at that location. Parallel to the stockade walls, another barrier (similar to a picket fence) was set 14 ft outside the stockade. It was designed to slow attackers as they came into range.</p><br>
<p>A reconstruction of part of the stockade, based on archeological evidence, was made in 1972. The reconstructed walls are 12 ft high and have wooden posts set 4 ft deep into a narrow trench. The walls and posts are covered with wattle and daub (a loose weaving of sticks covered with a mud-and-grass plaster). Defensive bastions along the stockade walls were also reconstructed. The original inhabitants set the bastions about 120 ft apart and projecting 10 ft to 11 ft from the wall. The distance between each bastion allowed defenders using arrows or lances to protect the walls from direct attack.</p><br>
<h2>Other structural features</h2><br>
<p>When residences were no longer "serviceable," the Mississippians burned the structures and constructed a new one over the ashes. Indiana archaeologist Glenn A. Black posited that walls were covered in cane and plastered with mud and straw. Roof composition is uncertain, but Black thought they were grass thatch. Two construction methods were used, one for summer and another for winter. Two circular structures uncovered at the site are likely to have been sweat lodges (similar in use to present-day saunas). Or, they may have been used for meetings.Wageman, p. 13.</p><br>
<p>The Mississippians also constructed what is believed to have been a public plaza between Mound A and Mound F.</p><br>
<h2>Artifacts</h2><br>
<p>About 2.4 million artifacts were collected during excavations conducted by WPA workers from 1939 to 1942. One of the most significant artifacts uncovered at the Angel site was a carved Mississippian culture stone statue of a seated man, which was found at Mound F in November 1940. The fluorite artifact is 8.5 in tall and weighs 11.5 lb. Similar rare fluorite statues have been found at the Obion Mounds site in Henry County, Tennessee and the Ware Mounds site in Union County, Illinois.</p><br>
<p>Mississippian tools and weapons found at the site were made of igneous rock, sedimentary rock (sandstone), slate, shale, diorite, or cannel coal. Metalwork objects were very rare. Based on research and artifacts discovered at the Angel site, it is believed that the Mississippians used bone fishhooks and nets made of cord to catch mollusks and freshwater fish (catfish and drumfish). Spears with projectile points were used to hunt small game. Antler, animal and bird bone, shells, and animal teeth were also found.</p><br>
<p>Of the nearly 2 million sherds of pottery found at the site, 4,569 of them were of the negative-painted type. Textile patterns made inside of the pottery are a trait unique to the Angel site. In May 2006, researchers discovered a probable pottery-making workshop at the site. This discovery further revealed the artistic skills of the Mississippian culture people. Pottery tools and masses of prepared, slightly fired clay pieces were also found during the season&#39;s excavation. It appeared to be a type of production-line process, with the works awaiting finishing and firing as bowls, jars or figures.</p><br>
<p>The archaeological objects and associated records from Angel Mounds are curated and cared for at the IU Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology in Bloomington, Indiana. The most recent preservation effort came through a three-year Save America&#39;s Treasures grant administered by the National Park Service and the Institute of Museum and Library Services to rehouse the Angel Mounds collections.</p><br>
<h2>Kincaid Focus</h2><br>
<p>In the lower Ohio River valley in Illinois, Kentucky, and Indiana, the Mississippian-culture towns of Kincaid, Wickliffe, Tolu, and Angel Mounds have been grouped together into a "Kincaid Focus" set, due to similarities in pottery assemblages and site plans. Most striking are the comparisons between the Kincaid and Angel sites, which include analogous site plans, stylistic similarities in artifacts, and geographic proximity. These connections have led some scholars to hypothesize that the builders and residents were of the same society.</p><br>
<p>The 300- to 400-year span in which these types of artifacts and sites are found is called the "Angel phase". It is divided into three subphases:</p><br>
<p>Rare painted and incised sherds of Mississippian culture pottery have been found at all four sites, ranging from less than one percent near Kincaid to about three or four percent of the assemblage at Wickliffe. Some common pottery styles found in these sites include: Angel Negative Painted, Kincaid Negative Painted, and Matthews Incised. This pottery is shell-tempered and ranges from the smoothed surface and coarser temper of Mississippi Ware to the more polished surface and finer temper of Bell Ware.</p><br>
<h2>Burials</h2><br>
<p>During the WPA excavation of the site (1939 to 1942), more than 300 burials were uncovered, most of them in the site&#39;s east village. Other burials were found on the sides of Mound F, at Mound I, or near the palisade walls. Although there are grave sites found throughout the Angel site, the remains of infant children were "occasionally found beneath the floors of homes."</p><br>
<p>Fort Ontario is an American historic bastion fort situated by the City of Oswego in Oswego County, New York. It is owned by the state of New York and operated as a museum known as Fort Ontario State Historic Site. Fort Ontario is located on the east side of the Oswego River on high ground overlooking Lake Ontario.</p><br>
<h2>18th century</h2><br>
<p>Fort Ontario was one of several forts erected by the British to protect the area around the east end of Lake Ontario. The original Fort Ontario was erected in 1755, during the French and Indian War, in order to bolster defenses already in place at Fort Oswego on the opposite side of the river. At that time its name was the "Fort of the Six Nations," but the fort was destroyed by French forces during the Battle of Fort Oswego in 1756 and rebuilt by British forces in 1759.</p><br>
<p>Note: This includes and</p><br>
<p>At the conclusion of Pontiac&#39;s War, Pontiac urged moderation and agreed to travel to New York, where he made a formal treaty with William Johnson at Fort Ontario on July 25, 1766.</p><br>
<p>During the American Revolutionary War, a detachment from the 3rd New York Regiment destroyed the fort in July, 1778, after the British abandoned it. The British returned and rebuilt the fort in 1782. There was an aborted attack on the fort by Colonel Marinus Willet in 1783. The British held the fort after the war was over until 1796 after the signing of Jay&#39;s Treaty.</p><br>
<h2>19th century</h2><br>
<p>The fort was attacked and destroyed by British forces during the War of 1812 in the year 1814. After a period of disuse, new construction was undertaken in part because of tensions with Great Britain as well as to check smuggling activities between Canada and the United States.</p><br>
<p>During the American Civil War the new construction began at the fort because of fear of British help from Canada to the Confederacy. After the American Civil War it held Company F, 42nd Infantry which consisted of wounded soldiers from the war that had reenlisted in the USA Army. Although the fort remained a military base, the fort itself fell into ruin, since funds were used to create more modern quarters outside the fort.</p><br>
<h2>20th century</h2><br>
<p>When the United States entered World War I in April 1917, the fort was repurposed as a military hospital, known as General Hospital No. 5. The facility was used to train medical personnel before they were posted to France.</p><br>
<p>In 1921, the fort again became an infantry base, initially the 28th Infantry Regiment and in 1933, the 2nd Brigade of the USA 1st Infantry Division called Fort Ontario home until the brigade was deactivated on June 1, 1940. During this period, some of the historic buildings inside the fort were restored and a golf course was laid out on the grassy ramparts.</p><br>
<p>In 1940, the fort was refurbished as an induction center for new conscripts with 60 new buildings for 3,000 men, but it was used instead as a base for several National Guard anti-aircraft units. As America entered World War II, Fort Ontario was repurposed again as a training center for African American</p><br>
<p>military police.</p><br>
<p>Later in the war, the fort was home to 982 Jewish refugees, from August 1944 to February 1946. The Fort Ontario Emergency Refugee Shelter was the only attempt by the United States to shelter Jewish refugees during the war. After the end of the war the refugees were kept in internment because of disagreements concerning whether or not to allow them to become United States citizens. In January 1946, the decision was made to allow them to become citizens, and by February all of the Jewish refugees were allowed to leave Fort Ontario.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>Although closed by the USA Army after World War II, some of the buildings at Fort Ontario are still used for training by the Army Reserve.</p><br>
<p>The restored fort is open to the public as a state historic site. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970. In 2010, Fort Ontario was one of the state-funded historical sites named by Governor David Paterson as being potentially unfunded because of the budget crisis faced by New York State. In response, many of the citizens of Oswego and students of the State University of New York at Oswego have joined together in support of the historical site.</p><br>
<p>The Safe Haven Holocaust Refugee Shelter Museum operates in a building south of the fort.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The present fortifications are built on a pentagonal plan with five bastions, similar to the layout of Fort Jackson, Louisiana. It was designed for heavy cannon mounted en barbette (i.e. in the open firing over the parapet), but howitzers were mounted in casemates built into the ramparts of the bastions. The stone-faced scarp walls of the bastions were also pierced with loopholes for rifle fire, which are of varying design, reflecting the preferences of the different engineers overseeing the construction. Originally, a ravelin protected the side of the fort facing Lake Ontario and mounted further heavy guns.</p><br>
<p>The current layout of the fort includes Officer Quarters #1, the Powder Magazine, the Enlisted Men&#39;s Barracks, the Storehouse, and Officer Quarters #2. There are also two guardhouses by the entrance of the tunnel to the main entrance.</p><br>
<p>The Stanley Hotel is a 140-room Colonial Revival hotel in Estes Park, Colorado, United States, about five miles from the entrance to Rocky Mountain National Park. It was built by Freelan Oscar Stanley, co-founder of the Stanley Motor Carriage Company, and opened on July 4, 1909, as a resort for upper-class Easterners and a health retreat for sufferers of pulmonary tuberculosis. The hotel and its surrounding structures are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Today, the hotel includes a restaurant, spa, and bed-and-breakfast; with panoramic views of Lake Estes, the Rockies, and Longs Peak.</p><br>
<p>The Stanley Hotel served as the inspiration for the Overlook Hotel in Stephen King&#39;s 1977 novel The Shining and its 1980 film adaptation. It was also a filming location for the related 1997 TV miniseries.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1903, the steam-powered car inventor Freelan Oscar Stanley (1849–1940) was stricken with a life-threatening resurgence of tuberculosis. The most highly recommended treatment of the day was fresh, dry air with much sunlight and a hearty diet. Therefore, like many "lungers" of his day, Stanley resolved to take the curative air of the Rocky Mountains. He and his wife Flora arrived in Denver, Colorado, in March and, in June, on the recommendation of Dr. Sherman Grant Bonney, moved to Estes Park, Colorado, for the rest of the summer. Over the season, Stanley&#39;s health improved dramatically. Impressed by the beauty of the valley and grateful for his recovery, he decided to return every year. He lived to 91, dying of a heart attack in Newton, Massachusetts, one year after his wife, in 1940.</p><br>
<p>By 1907, Stanley had recovered completely. However, not content with the rustic accommodations, lazy pastimes and relaxed social scene of their new summer home, Stanley resolved to turn Estes Park into a resort town. In 1907, construction began on the Hotel Stanley, a 48-room grand hotel that catered to the class of moderately wealthy urbanites who composed the Stanleys&#39; social circle back east as well as to consumptives seeking the healthful climate.</p><br>
<p>The land was purchased in 1908 through the representatives of The 4th Earl of Dunraven and Mount-Earl, the Anglo-Irish peer who had originally acquired it by stretching the provisions of the Homestead Act of 1862 and pre-emption rights. Between 1872 and 1884, Lord Dunraven claimed 15,000 acre of the Estes Valley in an unsuccessful attempt to create a private hunting preserve, making him one of the largest foreign holders of American lands. Unpopular with the local ranchers and farmers, Dunraven left the area in 1884, relegating the ranch to the management of an overseer. Dunravens presence in Colorado was parodied in Charles Kings novel Dunraven Ranch (1892) and James A. Michener&#39;s Centennial (1974). His reputation was such that, when Stanley suggested "The Dunraven" as a name for his new hotel, 180 people signed a buckskin petition requesting that he name it for himself instead.</p><br>
<p>The main hotel and concert hall were completed in 1909 and the Manor in 1910. To bring guests from the nearest train depot in the foothills town of Lyons, Colorado, Stanley&#39;s car company produced a fleet of specially-designed steam-powered vehicles called Mountain Wagons that seated multiple passengers. Stanley operated the hotel almost as a pastime, remarking once that he spent more money than he made each summer.</p><br>
<p>In 1926, Stanley sold his hotel to a private company incorporated for the sole purpose of running it. The venture failed and, in 1929, Stanley purchased his property out of foreclosure, selling it again in 1930 to fellow automobile and hotel magnate Roe Emery of Denver. Until 1983, the resort was only open during the summer, shutting down for the winter every year. The presence of the hotel and Stanley&#39;s own involvement greatly contributed to the growth of Estes Park (incorporated in 1917) and the creation of the Rocky Mountain National Park (established in 1915).</p><br>
<p>The hotel was a member of Historic Hotels of America, a program of the National Trust for Historic Preservation, but is not part of the program as of 2022.</p><br>
<h3>1911 gas explosion</h3><br>
<p>Upon opening, the hotel was alleged to be one of the few in the world powered entirely by electricity. However, lack of available power induced the installation of an auxiliary gas lighting system in June 1911. On June 25 – the day after the pipes had been filled – an explosion occurred that injured a maid and damaged the structure, though contemporary newspaper articles differ on certain details.</p><br>
<p>A brief article telegraphed to the York Dispatch (of York, Pennsylvania) and circulated by the Associated Press the following day said:</p><br>
<p>When the Lancaster paper reprinted the story, the editor noted that Elizabeth Wilsons name did not appear in local directories and she could not be identified as a Lancastrian. Similar accounts in local Colorado papers give the maids name as Elizabeth Lambert and convey various dramatic details that are not confirmed by other articles. The most comprehensive and detailed article on the incident appeared on June 29 in the Fort Collins Express and seems to be the most accurate – positively refuting that the maid had been "hurled from the second to the first floor"</p><br>
<h2>Architecture</h2><br>
<p>The Stanley Hotel National Register Historic District contains 11 contributing structures including the main hotel, the concert hall, a carriage house, managers cottage, gate house and The Lodgea smaller bed-and-breakfast originally called The Manor House. The buildings were designed by F.O. Stanley with the professional assistance of Denver architect T. Robert Wieger, Henry "Lord Cornwallis" Rogers, and contractor Frank Kirchoff. The site was chosen for its vantage overlooking the Estes valley and Longs Peak within the National Park. The main building, concert hall and Manor House are steel-frame structures on foundations of random rubble granite with clapboard siding and asphalt shingle roof. Originally, Stanley chose a yellow ocher color for the buildings exteriors with white accents and trim. Lumber used in the structures was harvested from the areas of Bierstadt Lake and Hidden Valley in the future national park, and purchased from Kirchoffs Lumberyard in Denver and Bluff City Lumber Company of Pine Bluff, Arkansas. The granite was quarried from the Baldwin property near the confluence of Beaver Brook and the Big Thompson River. Non-local materials were brought to Lyons, Colorado by rail and thence to Estes Park by mule-drawn wagon.</p><br>
<p>Upon opening in 1909, the hotel was alleged to be one of first in the country to be fully electrified from the lighting to the kitchens (although some fixtures could be operated with either electricity or gas). To supply his hotel with power, Stanley led the construction of the Fall River Hydroplant which also brought electricity to the town of Estes Park for the first time. Every guest room had a telephone and each pair of rooms shared an en suite bathroom with running water supplied by Black Canyon Creek, which had been dammed in 1906. Circa 1935, during Roe Emery&#39;s tenure as owner the ochre-colored siding was painted white and most of the original electro-gas fixtures were replaced.</p><br>
<p>Although the style of the hotel evokes the historical architecture of New England, the general form and layout are designed to accommodate contemporary notions of hygiene and comfort. Given Stanleys interest in architectural design and healthful living, he may have been inspired by the Carolina Hotel (built 1899–1900) in Pinehurst, North Carolina, designed by Bertrand E. Taylor (1856–1909)a national leader in hospital design and, like Stanley, a resident of Newton, Massachusetts. The parallels between the Carolina and the Stanley extend beyond style; the builder of the Carolina, James Walker Tufts, was a Boston soda magnate who initially developed Pinehurst as a health resort for people with pulmonary diseases. Whether or not Stanley had exposure to Taylors work and ideas, it is certain that he was influenced by Dr. Sherman Grant Bonney of the University of Denver, a contemporary expert in the treatment of tuberculosis; Stanleys Estes Park summer house is illustrated in Bonneys book, Pulmonary Tuberculosis (published while the hotel was under construction), and Stanley himself is acknowledged in the preface for his "interest and efficiency in connection with the photographic illustrations." Although the hotel never operated as a sanitarium per se, it was designed to be an optimal environment for pulmonary health. When the construction plans were announced, the Fort Collins Weekly Courier reported, " has been a favorite place for doctors to send the more robust of their patients, who were in shape to be braced up by the keen air and the considerable altitude, but it has not always been possible to get suitable accommodations and surroundings for them. With the park turned into a vast pleasure ground, and ample provisions for the best food products, all precious objections will be dissipated." Accordingly, the facilities were sited and designed to meet the requirements expounded in Bonney&#39;s book. For instance, according to Bonney,</p><br>
<p>This text is accompanied by a photograph of "the delightful view afforded from the porches of cottages for consumptives in Estes Park, Colorado." The hotel also provided the ample porches, ventilation, southern exposure, and appetizing food recommended in Bonney&#39;s book.</p><br>
<p>The style of the Stanley Hotel campus is colonial revival. The strong symmetrical arrangement of the primary facade, and the classically derived ornamental articulations such as the two-stage octagonal cupola, Palladian window, fanlights, dormers, swans neck pediments, scroll brackets, paired Tuscan columns, oval ox-eye windows, and elaborately turned balusters are all stylistic hallmarks of the so-called American Georgian and Federal Styles. The clapboard siding and carved wood elements are characteristic of New Englands regional building practices. And yet, these features are modified and arranged to accommodate the tastes and lifestyles of the early twentieth century.</p><br>
<p>The style of the hotel contrasts sharply with the rustic style used for the other hotels in Estes Park, before and after the Stanleys construction. However, it was not an uncommon choice for a hotel of the Stanleys size and quality in the time period (e.g. Royal Poinciana Hotel, Lake Yellowstone Hotel, Mount Washington Hotel). In general, the colonial revival symbolized the historical roots of modern American cultural values and the positive progress of American civilization. By this token, the Stanley Hotel was an expression of the modest gentility of the builder and his clientele, an advertisement for the modern comforts contained within it, and a beacon for the future of Estes Park as a respectable resort town. All of these connotations were heightened in contrast with the ruggedness of the Rocky Mountains and the rusticity of the other hotels in the area.</p><br>
<h3>Main building</h3><br>
<p>The floor plan of the main hotel (completed 1909) was laid out to accommodate the various activities popular with the American upper class at the turn of the twentieth century and the spaces are decorated accordingly. The music room, for instance, with its cream-colored walls (originally green and white), picture windows and fine, classical plaster-work was designed for letter-writing during the day and chamber music at night – cultured pursuits perceived as feminine. On the other hand, the smoking lounge (today the Piñon Room) and adjoining billiard room, with their dark stained-wood elements and granite arch fireplace were designated for enjoyment by male guests. Stanley himself, having been raised in a conservative household and having recovered from a serious lung disease, did not smoke cigars or drink alcohol, but these were essential after-dinner activities for most men at the time. Billiards, however, was among Stanley&#39;s most cherished pastimes.</p><br>
<p>With no central heating or ventilation system, the structure was designed to facilitate natural airflow; the Palladian window at the top of the grand stair could be opened to induce a cross-breeze through the lobby, French doors in all the public spaces open onto verandas, and two curving staircases connecting the guest corridors prevent stagnant air in the upper floors. Although the main hotel is now heated in the winter, guests still depend on natural ventilation for cooling in the summer. Within a few years of opening, a hydraulic elevator was put in operation. In 1916, the east wing of the main building was extended in the rear adding several guest rooms. Around this time, the alcove of the music room was added. In 1921, a rear veranda was enclosed forming a room that currently serves as a gift shop. Around 1935, the hydraulic elevator system was replaced with a cable-operated system and extended to the fourth floor necessitating the addition of a secondary cupola to house the mechanical apparatus. Originally, a porte-cochère extended from the central bay of the front porch, but this was removed when the south terrace was converted into a parking lot. In 1983, a service tunnel was excavated, connecting the basement-level corridor to the staff entrance. It is cut directly through the living granite on which the hotel rests.</p><br>
<h3>Concert hall</h3><br>
<p>The concert hall, east of the hotel, was built by Stanley in 1909 with the assistance of Henry "Lord Cornwallis" Rogers, the same architect who designed his summer cottage. According to popular legend, it was built by F.O. Stanley as a gift for his wife, Flora. The interior is decorated in the same manner as the music room in the main hotel and vaguely resembles that of the Boston Symphony Hall (McKim, Mead & White, 1900) with which the Stanleys would have been familiar. The stage features a trap door, used for theatrical entrances and exits. The lower level once housed a two-lane bowling alley which was removed during the ownership of Maxwell Abbell. It possibly resembled the bowling alley at the Stanley&#39;s Hunnewell Club in Newton, pictures of which are archived in the Newton Free Library. The hall underwent extensive repair and renovation in the 2000s.</p><br>
<h3>The Lodge</h3><br>
<p>Once called The Manor House, this smaller hotel between the main structure and the concert hall is a 1:3 scaled-down version of the main hotel. Unlike its model, the manor was fully heated from completion in 1910 which may indicate that Stanley planned to use it as a winter resort when the main building was closed for the season. However, unlike many other Colorado mountain towns now famous for their winter sports, Estes Park never attracted off-season visitors in Stanley&#39;s day and the manor remained empty for much of the year. Today it is called The Lodge and it features a brunch restaurant and is open to guests as another location to stay on the property.</p><br>
<h2>The Shining</h2><br>
<p>In 1974, during their brief residency in Boulder, Colorado, American horror writer Stephen King and his wife Tabitha spent one night at the Stanley Hotel. The visit is known entirely through interviews given by King in which he presents differing narratives of the experience. At the time of his visit, King was writing a book with the working title Darkshine set in an amusement park, but was not satisfied with the setting. According to George Beahms Stephen King Companion, "on the advisement of locals who suggested a resort hotel located in Estes Park, an hours drive away to the north, Stephen and Tabitha King found themselves checking in at the Stanley Hotel just as its other guests were checking out, because the hotel was shutting down for the winter season. After checking in and after Tabitha went to bed, King roamed the halls and went down to the hotel bar, where drinks were served by a bartender named Grady. As King returned to his room, numbered 217, his imagination was fired up by the hotels remote location, its grand size, and its eerie desolation. Later, when King went into the bathroom and pulled back the pink curtain for the tub, which had claw feet, he thought, What if somebody died here? At that moment, I knew I had a book.</p><br>
<p>In a 1977 interview by the Literary Guild, King recounted "While we were living we heard about this terrific old mountain resort hotel and decided to give it a try. But when we arrived, they were just getting ready to close for the season, and we found ourselves the only guests in the placewith all those long, empty corridors." King and his wife were served dinner in an empty dining room accompanied by canned orchestral music: "Except for our table all the chairs were up on the tables. So the music is echoing down the hall, and, I mean, it was like God had put me there to hear that and see those things. And by the time I went to bed that night, I had the whole book in my mind." In another retelling, King said "I dreamed of my three-year-old son running through the corridors, looking back over his shoulder, eyes wide, screaming. He was being chased by a fire-hose. I woke up with a tremendous jerk, sweating all over, within an inch of falling out of bed. I got up, lit a cigarette, sat in a chair looking out the window at the Rockies, and by the time the cigarette was done, I had the bones of The Shining firmly set in my mind."</p><br>
<p>The Shining was published in 1977 and became the third great success of Kings career after Carrie and Salems Lot. The primary setting is an isolated Colorado resort named the Overlook Hotel which closes for the winter. In the front matter of the book, King tactfully states "Some of the most beautiful resort hotels in the world are located in Colorado, but the hotel in these pages is based on none of them. The Overlook and the people associated with it exist wholly in the authors imagination."</p><br>
<h2>Film location and venue</h2><br>
<p>The Stanley Hotel served as the fictional hotel and filming location for Danbury of Aspen, Colorado, in the 1994 film Dumb and Dumber.</p><br>
<p>The Shining, a three-part miniseries and horror tv-adaptation, was written and produced by Stephen King, based on his 1977 novel of the same name, which had been largely inspired by the Stanley Hotel. The miniseries was produced by King, who had been dissatisfied with Stanley Kubricks 1980 film. Unlike Kubricks version, the miniseries, directed by Mick Garris, was filmed at the Stanley Hotel, which stood in for the fictional "Overlook Hotel", located in the Colorado Rockies. Film production started in March 1996, with the first episode being released in March 1997.</p><br>
<p>From 2013 to 2015, the hotel hosted the Stanley Film Festival, an independent horror film festival operated by the Denver Film Society, held in early May. The festival featured screenings, panels, student competitions, audience awards and receptions. The Stanley Film Festival was put on hiatus in 2016 and canceled for 2017.</p><br>
<p>Bravo&#39;s cooking competition Top Chef also used the Stanley as a venue for Episode 10 of Season 15, which took place in various locations around Colorado.</p><br>
<p>Indie rock band Murder by Death have performed an annual series of winter concerts at the Stanley Hotel since 2014, with the 2020 edition being their seventh such event.</p><br>
<h2>Haunted reputation</h2><br>
<p>Despite a peaceful early history, in the years following the publication of The Shining, the Stanley Hotel gained a reputation as a setting for paranormal activity, and has been frequently named as one of the most haunted hotels in the United States. It has hosted numerous paranormal investigators and appeared in shows such as Ghost Hunters and Ghost Adventures.</p><br>
<h2>Famous guests</h2><br>
<p>The Stanley Hotel has hosted the following persons of note:</p><br>
<p>1934, Erich Fromm, the German psychoanalyst</p><br>
<p>1936, Gov. Alf Landon (R, Kansas) while running for president against Franklin Delano Roosevelt</p><br>
<p>1974, Stephen King, author who was inspired to write The Shining after his stay in room 217</p><br>
<p>1976, Bob Dylan and Joan Baez, folk revival icons during the Rolling Thunder Revue tour</p><br>
<p>1994, Emperor Akihito of Japan, Empress Michiko and Crown Prince Naruhito, on a state visit to the USA</p><br>
<p>1994, Dumb and Dumber cast and crew including Jim Carrey and Jeff Daniels</p><br>
<p>1996, The Shining (miniseries) cast and crew including Rebecca De Mornay and Steven Weber</p><br>
<h2>Ownership history</h2><br>
<p>1908–1926, Freelan Oscar Stanley</p><br>
<p>1926–1929, The Stanley Corporation</p><br>
<p>1929–1930, Freelan Oscar Stanley</p><br>
<p>1930–1946, Roe Emery</p><br>
<p>1946–1966, Abbell Management Company (later Abbell Hotel Company), run by Maxwell Abbell, Chicago real estate investor</p><br>
<p>?–1969, Stanley Properties, Inc., headed by Maurice L. Albertson, civil engineer at Colorado State University</p><br>
<p>1969–?, Richard R. Holechek, Charles F. Hanson and Carol Hanson Pick of Riverside and Palm Springs, California</p><br>
<p>?–1974, Estes Park Trustees</p><br>
<p>1974–1995, Frank Normali (Complete Restoration Period)</p><br>
<p>1995–present, Grand Heritage Hotel Group</p><br>
<p>expected mid-Dec. 2023 sale to Arizona-based Community Finance Corp.</p><br>
<p>The Preston School of Industry, also known as Preston Castle, was a reform school located in Ione, California, in Amador County. It was proposed by, and ultimately named after, state senator Edward Myers Preston. The cornerstone was laid in December 1890, and the institution was opened in June 1894 when seven wards  were transferred there from San Quentin State Prison. It is considered one of the oldest and best-known reform schools in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The original building, known colloquially as "Preston Castle" (or simply "The Castle"), is the most significant example of Romanesque Revival architecture in the Mother Lode. and listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NPS-75000422). A National Register listing encompassing most of the historic facility was approved in 2024.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, the institution&#39;s official name, applied to the newer 1960 buildings, was changed to the "Preston Youth Correctional Facility".</p><br>
<p>In 2010, the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation announced that the facility was to close, and a closing ceremony was held on June 2, 2011.</p><br>
<p>As of 2024, Preston Castle remains in considerable disrepair, and efforts to restore Preston Castle are underway. The Preston Castle Foundation, which purchased the castle for $1 from the state in 2014, is overseeing the restoration work. It could be many years before Preston Castle is fully restored, and it is estimated that the full cost of repairs could be as much as $45 million.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The school was used as a shooting location (as the "Bleeding Heart Orphanage") for the 1984 comedy film Bad Manners.</p><br>
<p>The 2014 film A Haunting at Preston Castle is set at the castle and surrounding area, as is the 2019 movie Apparition.</p><br>
<p>The first episode of season 2 of the TV series Ghost Adventures is about Preston Castle.</p><br>
<p>Ghost Hunters investigated the castle&#39;s paranormal reports in season 6, episode 6.</p><br>
<p>The facility is the subject of The Lowe Files Season 1, Episode 1: "Haunted Boy&#39;s Reformatory".</p><br>
<p>Preston School of Industry was an American indie rock band formed by Scott Kannberg (a.k.a. Spiral Stairs) in 1999, following the dissolution of his previous band, Pavement.</p><br>
<h2>Former wards</h2><br>
<p>Former Preston wards include:</p><br>
<p>The Meades Ranch Triangulation Station is a survey marker in Osborne County in the state of Kansas in the Midwestern United States. The marker was initially placed in 1891. From 1901, it was the reference location for establishing a system of horizontal measurement in the United States, known as geodetic datum. In 1913, the datum was adopted across all of North America, and the system revised and formalized as the North American Datum of 1927 . A similar reference for vertical measurement was established in 1929 as the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929. The NAD27 was later supplanted by the North American Datum of 1983 , which was formally adopted by the United States in 1989 and Canada in 1990; the new system moved the reference point to a point in the Earth&#39;s core, and the Meades Ranch marker lost its special significance to the geodetic datum system.</p><br>
<p>In 1973, the site was listed in the National Register of Historic Places as the Geodetic Center of the United States.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In surveying, a geodetic datum is a point or set of points used to establish a coordinate system. By designating the location of one point, and the direction from that point to a second point, one can establish a system relative to which other points can be located and mapped. As one surveys a larger area over which the curvature of the Earth becomes significant, it also becomes necessary to define an ellipsoid: a curved surface that approximates the shape of the Earth in the area of interest.</p><br>
<p>The first nationwide datum in the United States was established in 1879. At that time, a region of contiguous triangulation existed from Maine to Georgia. The New England Datum was chosen with a benchmark in Maryland, near the middle of this region, as the horizontal datum, and a second Maryland mark used to define the azimuth (horizontal) direction. To account for the Earth&#39;s curvature, the datum used a model called the Clarke spheroid, developed in 1866.</p><br>
<h3>Meades Ranch station</h3><br>
<p>The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey established a triangulation station, officially known as the Meades Ranch Triangulation Station, in 1891. The location lay near the intersection of two transcontinental arcs of triangulation: one running from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, roughly following the 39th parallel; the other running from Mexico to Canada, along the 98th meridian.</p><br>
<p>In 1901, the Meades Ranch station was chosen as the United States standard horizontal datum: the point relative to which all land measurements in the nation were made. The choice was based on the stations location near the geographic center of the USA and near the intersection of the two arcs of triangulation, and because it minimized the number of changes in previously published positions. Its position was officially set as 39°1326.686" N and 98°3230.506" W; the azimuth direction to a triangulation station near Waldo, southwest of Meades Ranch, was officially set as 75°2814.52" west of south.</p><br>
<p>In 1913, the chief astronomer of the Dominion of Canada Astronomical Observatory and the director of the Comisión Geodésica Mexicana announced that their organizations would use the Meades Ranch location as their standard datum. In light of this, its name was changed to the "North American Datum".</p><br>
<p>As more new surveys and previously isolated survey networks were incorporated into the system, it became increasingly difficult to make the necessary corrections. By the mid-1920s, it was realized that the coordinate system needed to be adjusted. From 1927 to 1932, the approximately 25,000 existing control locations were recalculated and a new coordinate system developed, known as NAD27. The new system continued to use the 1901 coordinates of Meades Ranch as its horizontal datum, and the Clarke spheroid as its model for the Earth&#39;s surface. However, it now defined horizontal directions in terms of 175 Laplace azimuths, which use astronomical azimuths corrected for the difference between the astronomic and geodetic meridians. Under NAD27, the azimuth to the Waldo station changed by about 5".</p><br>
<p>In 1973, the Meades Ranch site was added to the National Register of Historic Places, under the name "Geodetic Center of the United States".</p><br>
<h3>NAD83</h3><br>
<p>Following the establishment of NAD27, it was noted that it produced a discrepancy of about 10 m in latitudes in the northern part of the northern USA state of Michigan, necessitating a regional adjustment for the states of Michigan and Wisconsin. As the survey network was extended further north into Canada, similar discrepancies appeared. The problem proved to be systemic: It had been assumed that the differences between the Clarke spheroid and the actual geoid were negligible, whereas these differences actually introduced significant errors. The relatively small number and large separation of the points used to develop NAD27, the limited computational power available to its designers, and the movement of tectonic plates also led to inconsistencies in NAD27 coordinates.</p><br>
<p>To address these, a new datum was developed, designated NAD83. It replaced the Clarke spheroid with a new ellipsoid, the Geographic Reference System 1980, centered at the Earths center of mass as determined by the Bureau International de lHeure. The new datum was based on adjustment of 250,000 points, including 600 satellite Doppler stations. NAD83 was officially adopted by the USA government in 1989, and by the Canadian government in 1990. Under the new system, Meades Ranch lost its special standing, and became one of thousands of stations.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>As of 2012, the location of the Meades Ranch station was 39&deg;13&prime;26.71220&Prime;N latitude, 98&deg;32&prime;31.74540&Prime;W longitude (in NAD83(2011); WGS 84 location may be very slightly off). It lies about 12 mi north of Lucas and about 10 mi southwest of Tipton.</p><br>
<p>The station is on a low grassy ridge in a pasture. It is marked by a bronze disc, inscribed "Meades Ranch 1891", embedded in the top of a dome-shaped concrete marker 21 in in diameter, rising about 4 in above ground level. Two reference marks and an azimuth mark are located nearby.</p><br>
<p>The Meades Ranch station is on private land, with no public access. A replica of the station marker, with a Kansas historical marker explaining its significance, is located at 39.452286&deg; latitude, -98.693542&deg; longitude, in a roadside rest area beside USA Highway 281 at the northern edge of Osborne, Kansas, 18 mi northwest of the Meades Ranch site.</p><br>
<p>Portsmouth was a fishing and shipping village located on Portsmouth Island on the Core Banks in North Carolina, United States. Portsmouth Island is a tidal island connected, under most conditions, to the northern end of the North Core Banks, across Ocracoke Inlet from the village of Ocracoke. The town lies in Carteret County, was established in 1753 by the North Carolina Colonial Assembly, and abandoned in 1971. Its remains are now part of the Cape Lookout National Seashore.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ocracoke Inlet was a popular shipping lane during colonial times. Established in 1753, the town of Portsmouth functioned as a lightering port, where cargo from ocean-going vessels could be transferred to shallow-draft vessels capable of traversing Pamlico and Core Sounds. Portsmouth grew to a peak population of 685 in 1860. Though small, Portsmouth was one of the most important points-of-entry along the Atlantic coast in post-Revolutionary America.</p><br>
<p>In 1846, two strong hurricanes cut Oregon Inlet and deepened the existing Hatteras Inlet to the northeast, making Ocracoke Inlet a less desirable shipping lane by comparison. The waters around Portsmouths harbor also began to shoal up, hastening its decline as a port. The Civil War was yet another blow as many people fled to the mainland when Union soldiers came to occupy the Outer Banks. Many didnt return after the war had ended and the Village of Portsmouth continued its decline, sped along by the occasional hurricane. The mammoth 1933 Atlantic hurricane season also served as a benchmark in the island&#39;s population decline, though more as a focal point of memory and a symbol of decline than the real cause of it. (These were the same hurricanes that led to the depopulation of the barrier islands on the Eastern Shore of Virginia and Maryland.)</p><br>
<p>A further blow was the decommissioning of the US Life-Saving Station there in 1937, and closing of the post office in 1959. In 1967 Portsmouth Island and village had already been acquired by the National Park Service, then incorporated into the new Cape Lookout National Seashore. The last two elderly residents, Marian Gray Babb and Nora Dixon, left the island in 1971 after the death of Henry Pigott, who although approximately the same age was essentially their caretaker.</p><br>
<p>In 1978 Portsmouth Village was added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Life in Portsmouth</h2><br>
<p>The inhabitants of Portsmouth Village were heavily engaged in fishing and other maritime trades, like piloting and manning vessels, even building a small man-made island, Shell Castle, out of oyster shells for use as a shipping depot. Later many worked as fisherman and clammers. Much of Portsmouths population was African American descending from the slaves brought to the island. After the Civil War most African Americans left Portsmouth but some families remained including Pigott family whose descendants were some of the islands last inhabitants: Henry and Lizzie Pigott. Under segregation, black and white children could not legally attend the one-room schoolhouse on Portsmouth Island together. The state never built a separate school for Blacks, so African Americans who remained on the island in its declining years never received the benefits of a formal education.</p><br>
<p>Inhabitants of the island lived without electricity, running water or refrigeration.</p><br>
<h2>Portsmouth today</h2><br>
<p>Now, 21 total buildings stand, including about a dozen dwellings and a few out-buildings. These are maintained as part of the Portsmouth Village Historic District. Of these the Salter House/visitor center, the one-room school, the Methodist Church, the Life-Saving Station, Henry Pigott&#39;s house and the Post Office/general store are open to the public during the summer. Now, especially during the summers, people often visit the island and camp out overnight on the beach (camping is not allowed in the village). Facilities are very limited with a compost toilet near the Life-Saving Station and a restroom in the Salter house/visitors center, with no potable water, food, or electricity available.</p><br>
<p>Portsmouth - Theodore & Anne Salter House - 01.JPGTheodore & Anne Salter House / Visitor Center (built circa 1905)</p><br>
<p>Portsmouth - Lionel & Emma Gilgo House - 01.JPGLionel & Emma Gilgo House (built circa 1926)</p><br>
<p>Portsmouth - George & Patsy Dixon House - 01.JPGGeorge & Patsy Dixon House (built circa 1875)</p><br>
<p>Portsmouth - Ed, Nora, & Elma Dixon House - 01.JPGEd, Nora, & Elma Dixon House (built circa 1910)</p><br>
<p>Portsmouth - Ed & Kate Styron House - 01.JPGEd & Kate Styron House (built 1933)</p><br>
<p>Portsmouth - Walker & Sarah Styron House - 01.JPGWalker & Sarah Styron House (built circa 1850)</p><br>
<p>Portsmouth - Washington Roberts House - 02.JPGWashington Roberts House (built circa 1840)</p><br>
<h2>Homecoming</h2><br>
<p>Portsmouth is the location of an increasingly well-known "homecoming," currently celebrated every two years. The island homecoming has its origins in the early trips made back to the island by families who left prior to the 1960s and was originally affiliated with the Methodist and Primitive Baptist churches, primarily out of Cedar Island, North Carolina, where many inhabitants of Portsmouth had resettled. The homecoming began as a church- and family-based event but has become increasingly a secular celebration of Portsmouth&#39;s heritage, under the aegis of the National Park Service. Many people who have no direct family connection to the island participate in the homecoming.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>Portsmouth is reached by a passenger ferry from Ocracoke village. It is also accessible by four wheel drive vehicles, which cross Core Sound by ferry from Atlantic and use the beach and tracks on North Core Banks.</p><br>
<h2>Portsmouth Island</h2><br>
<p>Portsmouth Island lies to the east of North Core Banks, to which it is connected at most states of the tide. The limits of the island are not precisely determined and have varied over time. Older maps use the term for the island between Ocracoke Inlet and Whalebone Inlet (which closed in 1961, now the northern end of North Core Banks.)</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>According to the Trewartha climate classification system, Portsmouth, North Carolina has a humid subtropical climate with hot and humid summers, cool winters and year-around precipitation (Cfak). Cfak climates are characterized by all months having an average mean temperature &gt; 32.0 °F (&gt; 0.0 °C), at least eight months with an average mean temperature ≥ 50.0 °F (≥ 10.0 °C), at least one month with an average mean temperature ≥ 71.6 °F (≥ 22.0 °C) and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. During the summer months in Portsmouth, a cooling afternoon sea breeze is present on most days, but episodes of extreme heat and humidity can occur with heat index values ≥ 100 °F (≥ 38 °C). Portsmouth is prone to hurricane strikes, particularly during the Atlantic hurricane season which extends from June 1 through November 30, sharply peaking from late August through September. During the winter months, episodes of cold and wind can occur with wind chill values &lt; 15 °F (&lt; -9 °C). The plant hardiness zone in Portsmouth is 8b with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of 17.5 °F (-8.1 °C). The average seasonal (Dec-Mar) snowfall total is &lt; 2 inches (&lt; 5 cm), and the average annual peak in nor&#39;easter activity is in February.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>According to the A. W. Kuchler USA potential natural vegetation types, Portsmouth, North Carolina would have a dominant vegetation type of Live oak/Sea Oats Uniola paniculata (90) with a dominant vegetation form of Coastal Prairie (20).</p><br>
<p>Carthage Jail is a historic building in Carthage, Illinois, listed on the National Register of Historic Places . It was built in 1839 and is best known as the location of the 1844 killing of Joseph Smith, founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, and his brother Hyrum, by a mob of approximately 150 men. It was added to the NRHP in 1973 and is operated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints  as a historic site with an adjacent visitors&#39; center.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The jail was built in 1839, constructed of red limestone quarried nearby. The building is rectangular and measures 29 ft by 35 ft. It is a gable-front building has two stories and an attic. Like other county jails built during the same period, Carthage Jail was built to incarcerate petty thieves and debtors and as a temporary holding place for violent criminals. The first floor contained a debtors room in the northwest corner, and a dungeon, or "criminal cell", was located on the north side of the second floor. The living area for the jailers family included a kitchen and dining room on the first floor and a bedroom on the second floor. A small "summer kitchen" was added later.</p><br>
<p>In June 1844, Smith came to the jail to face charges relating to his ordering the destruction of facilities producing the Nauvoo Expositor, a newspaper whose only edition had been critical of the Smiths&#39; religious teachings. He was joined by his brother, Hyrum, and fellow Latter Day Saints John Taylor and Willard Richards. On June 27, a mob stormed the upper room of the prison and killed the Smiths. Taylor was badly wounded and Richards was scathed, but not seriously injured. Hyrum Smith was 44 years old in February 1844 and Joseph Smith was 38 in December 1843.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration</h3><br>
<p>The building continued to be used as a jail until 1866 and was afterwards used as a private residence. It was acquired by the LDS Church in 1903 and a partial restoration was completed in 1935. It was added to the NRHP on March 30, 1973. The church fully restored the jail in 1989, returning the building to its 1844 appearance. The restoration also included an expansion of the visitors&#39; center and renovations to the entire block. Ezra Taft Benson, president of the LDS church at the time, spoke in front of about 3,000 at a shrine dedication of the jail.</p><br>
<p>Tours of Carthage Jail are available including the original door with a bullet hole, where the jailer and his family would have slept, and where the Smith brothers were held.</p><br>
<p>In 2020, Carthage Jail and other historic sites in the Nauvoo area were temporarily closed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.</p><br>
<p>The Golden Lamb Inn is the oldest hotel in Ohio, having been established in the Warren County seat of Lebanon in 1803. It opened as a log tavern, licensed as "a house of Public Entertainment" located on the main street of Lebanon. The present four-story structure is built around the 1815 rebuilding of the inn, maintaining its colonial architecture. It is known as the Golden Lamb because that image appeared on its signboard for the benefit of the illiterate. At various times it has been known as the Ownly Hotel, the Bradley House, the Lebanon House, and the Stubbs House.</p><br>
<p>On January 12, 1978, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places as the Golden Lamb.</p><br>
<h2>Famous guests</h2><br>
<p>Because of Lebanon&#39;s position on the highway between Cincinnati and Columbus, many notables have visited the inn. The Golden Lamb has been visited by twelve American Presidents: William Henry Harrison, Benjamin Harrison, John Quincy Adams, Martin Van Buren, Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, William McKinley, Warren G. Harding, William Howard Taft, Ronald Reagan, and George W. Bush.</p><br>
<p>Other famous guests to visit the Golden Lamb include Charles Dickens, Mark Twain, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Daniel Webster, Thomas Corwin, Clement Vallandigham (who infamously shot and killed himself accidentally in his hotel room at the Golden Lamb, while attempting to prove that a man, whom his client was accused of shooting, shot himself accidentally), Cordell Hull secretary of state for President Franklin D. Roosevelt (who went to school in Lebanon at the National Normal University), Robert A. Taft, Dewitt Clinton, and Lord Stanley, who later became prime minister of the United Kingdom. More recently, on September 8, 2008 Republican presidential and vice-presidential candidates senator John McCain and Alaska governor Sarah Palin spoke at the Golden Lamb.</p><br>
<h2>Owners</h2><br>
<p>Jonas Seaman of New Jersey was the log taverns builder and first operator. Debts forced him to sell during the 1810s. Ichabod Corwin, one of Lebanon&#39;s founders, bought the old Seaman tavern. Corwin built a fine brick hostel replacing the old log structure. In 1926, Robert Jones, grandfather of Senator Rob Portman and husband of Virginia Kunkle leased the Golden Lamb. In 1927, he refurbished it and redecorated it with Shaker furniture. In 1969, Mr. and Mrs. Jones leased the Golden Lamb to the Comisar family, who owned and operated the now defunct five-star Maisonette restaurant in Cincinnati. The Golden Lamb Restaurant & Hotel continues to be owned by the Portman Family of Ohio.</p><br>
<h2>The building</h2><br>
<p>Four floors</p><br>
<p>Lobby</p><br>
<p>Restaurant with a tavern, three large public dining rooms, and five private dining rooms</p><br>
<p>Gift shop</p><br>
<p>Seventeen guest rooms</p><br>
<p>The old stables were removed to make room for the parking lot</p><br>
<p>Historic Deerfield is a museum dedicated to the heritage and preservation of Deerfield, Massachusetts, and history of the Connecticut River Valley. Its historic houses, museums, and programs provide visitors with an understanding of New England&#39;s historic villages and countryside. It is located in the village of Old Deerfield which has been designated a National Historic Landmark District , and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The museum also hosts the Dublin Seminar for New England Folklife.</p><br>
<h2>Sites</h2><br>
<p>Eleven historic house museums are located in Historic Deerfield. Most are viewed on guided tours. A modern museum and a visitors center are part of the complex. The museum offers special exhibitions, family activities, workshops and seminars on historic subjects, and a gift shop. The Deerfield Inn is available for visitors.</p><br>
<p>Ashley House is the 1734 home of Deerfield&#39;s 18th-century minister, with furnishings of the Connecticut River elite and English ceramics.</p><br>
<p>Allen House is a 1734 home that was the 20th-century residence of Historic Deerfield&#39;s founders, Henry and Helen Flynt. The Flynt family renovated the house in 1945. The home features their personal collection of American antiques and is open by arrangement.</p><br>
<p>Stebbins House is the 1799 home of Asa Stebbins. The brick house features Federal period decorations, including neoclassical furnishings dating from 1790 to 1830. Highlights include French scenic wallpaper panels manufactured by Joseph Dufour et Cie that depict the voyages of Captain Cook. This house is open for self-guided tours.</p><br>
<p>Barnard Tavern is a 1795 tavern</p><br>
<p>Dwight House is a c. 1754 house built in Springfield, Massachusetts. It was moved to Deerfield in 1950 when it was threatened with demolition. The house reopened in 2009 as a museum of historic trades.</p><br>
<p>Frary House is a c. 1750 home interpreted to depict the 1890s home of Miss C. Alice Baker, who restored the house in 1892. Displays include New England antiques, Arts and Crafts needlework, ironware, and basketry. The house features Miss Baker&#39;s role in fostering the Colonial Revival in Deerfield.</p><br>
<p>Hall Tavern Visitor Center was originally built c. 1785 in Charlemont, Massachusetts; a ballroom wing was added around 1815. The building was moved to Deerfield and converted to a visitors center.</p><br>
<p>Sheldon House was built in 1754–55 and is interpreted to the period of 1780 to 1810. This house is open for self-guided tours.</p><br>
<p>Wells-Thorn House is a 1747 house featuring rooms demonstrating different periods and lifestyles from 1725 to the 1850s.</p><br>
<p>Williams House is a c. 1730 house extensively renovated in 1817. The house features Federal-style furnishings and decorations.</p><br>
<p>Flynt Center of Early New England Life is a modern museum with changing exhibits of history, heritage crafts, decorative arts, and other topics.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Historic Deerfield was founded by Henry and Helen Flynt, who had visited Deerfield in 1936 when their son attended Deerfield Academy. It was originally called "The Heritage Foundation" (not to be confused with The Heritage Foundation), but was changed to Historic Deerfield after Flynt&#39;s death in 1970.</p><br>
<h2>Local geography</h2><br>
<p>Historic Deerfield is based on a 330-year-old, mile-long street situated along the Deerfield River in the Pioneer Valley of Western Massachusetts.</p><br>
<h2>Deerfield history</h2><br>
<p>At the time of European contact, the area now known as Deerfield was inhabited by the indigenous Pocumtuck nation. The town was originally established as a grant of land to the residents of Dedham, Massachusetts, who had given land to the Massachusetts Bay Colony for the purpose of settling Christianized Indians.</p><br>
<p>For much of the colonial period Deerfield was one of New Englands frontier villages. Briefly abandoned during King Philips War in the 1670s, it was subjected to French and Indian raids during King Williams War in the 1690s. In Queen Annes War the village was subjected to a major raid, in which 40 percent of the population was taken prisoner. French and allied Abenaki, Mohawk, and other warriors breached the palisade and raided the village. They killed numerous settlers and took more than 100 residents captive. Before leaving for Canada, the raiding party burned the village.</p><br>
<p>Almost all of those who survived the attack and the march to Canada eventually were ransomed and returned to New England. Eunice Williams, captured at age eight, was adopted by a Mohawk family and became totally assimilated. She married a Mohawk man and had a family with him, choosing not to return to New England. In 1741 she visited surviving siblings for the first time, and she made two more visits later.</p><br>
<p>Deerfield survived the raid, and the frontier was pushed farther north and west. Settlers eventually moved into present-day Vermont and established settlements farther up the Connecticut River in New Hampshire.</p><br>
<h2>Art From Deerfield</h2><br>
<p>The town of Deerfield is home to a particular group of needlework samplers that share several defining features, known as the "White Dove" school. Popular in the area from 1790–1830, this style of sampler is named for the embroidered depiction of white doves outlined in black. Along with the doves, the style was typically characterized by an arrangement of baskets holding fruits and flowers, usually in a pyramid shape, sewn underneath an alphabet or verse, and surrounded by a three sided border. The uniformity in the works created from 1798–1826 suggests that the girls who created them studied under one instructor, but who they were and where they taught is unknown.</p><br>
<p>A well known example of the White Dove style was created by a girl named Esther Slate, at the age of ten years old in 1824. There are no less than three alphabets stitched into four separate rows, the first two alphabets are in a cursive font in both upper and lowercase letters, and the third alphabet is a block type font. The sampler is bordered by green vine motives on three sides, with a geometric triangle pattern on the bottom edge. Below the alphabets, Esther embroidered a garden scene, with a blue house in the center, flanked by two trees on either side, and a white picket fence surrounding them. Underneath the fence, the titular two white doves outlined in black stand with their wings spread. The picture is symmetrical up to the second tree on either side. On the left hand side, birds perch on sunflowers and crops, while an elephant and a monkey reside underneath. To the right, a fruit tree stands next to two of the popular white dove style fruit baskets.</p><br>
<p>Though the instructor who taught this style is unknown, the surviving pieces of the White Dove school were created by the children of prominent families in the area, and are in the collection of Historic Deerfield. Other examples of the style include the other sampler pictured on this page, made by Katy Bernard in 1793.</p><br>
<h3>Collection database</h3><br>
<p>Historic Deerfield&#39;s collections can be searched on the database maintained by the Five College Museums/Historic Deerfield.</p><br>
<p>The Salt Lake City and County Building, usually called the "City-County Building", is the seat of government for Salt Lake City, Utah. The historic landmark formerly housed offices for Salt Lake County government as well, hence the name.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building was originally constructed by free masons between 1891 and 1894 to house offices for the city and county of Salt Lake and replace the Salt Lake City Council Hall and Salt Lake County Courthouse, both erected in the 1860s.</p><br>
<p>Construction of the building was riddled with controversy. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the City and County Building was the symbol of non-Mormon citizens open defiance of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. It was designed to rival the Salt Lake Temple as the citys architectural centerpiece. It is even thought that the buildings clock tower and statues were designed to mimic the temples spires and statue of the angel Moroni. Ironically, the building was originally the 1880s brainchild of the Church-backed "Peoples Party." When the non-Mormon "Liberal Party" was campaigning for city government, they deemed the proposed "joint building" an example of the Churchs extravagance and wastefulness. In a reversal of stance, the Liberals decided to go ahead with the building when they finally gained power in 1890. Construction began in February on State Street at about 100 South.</p><br>
<p>For nebulous reasons, construction was halted that November after only the foundation had been laid. The mostly non-Mormon city council questioned the buildings plans which had been completed during the Peoples Party reign, and wavered on how to proceed. The Deseret News complained that the Liberals were wasting taxpayer money. Ultimately, the original plans and site for the building were scrapped and the whole project was moved to the buildings current location at Washington Square. The Deseret News claimed this move served the City Council, which owned property around the site and would profit from increased land values. Nonetheless construction on new plans began by late 1891. The cornerstone was laid July 25, 1892. Mormon president Wilford Woodruffs journals reported his attendance at the buildings dedication on Dec, 28 1894.</p><br>
<p>The architectural firm of Monheim, Bird, and Proudfoot designed the Richardsonian Romanesque building (Olpin et al., 2005). Henry Monheim (a local architect since the 1870s), George Washington Bird (1854-1950; from Wichita, Kansas and William Thomas Proudfoot (1860-1928; also of Wichita) established the firm in 1891 specifically to design the building. Their firm won a building design contest against fourteen other submissions. However, The Salt Lake Herald—another LDS-backed paper—claimed that the competition was a "pretentious fraud." Monheim, a Prussian immigrant, died one year into construction. Bird and Proudfoot moved to Philadelphia and Chicago respectively by 1896, so the City-County Building was their firm&#39;s only output.</p><br>
<p>The building was monstrously over budget. Estimated by the firm at $350,000, the winning contractor bid $377,978, but by the building&#39;s dedication on December 28, 1894, it had cost nearly $900,000. Complicating matters was the Panic of 1893 which cut Salt Lake City and County revenues nearly in half. As a result of this, plans for large stained glass windows for the building were discarded.</p><br>
<p>Although now used exclusively by Salt Lake City government, the building originally served many functions. Salt Lake County offices called the structure home until the 1980s when the County elected to build a new complex at 2100 South and State Street.</p><br>
<p>The building served as Utahs Capitol from when statehood was granted in 1896 until the present Utah State Capitol was completed in 1915. The Salt Lake City and County building also housed Salt Lakes first public library and contained courtrooms, including one that condemned organizer Joe Hill to death amid international attention in 1914.</p><br>
<p>At the conclusion of a few years of exhaustive renovation and remodeling of the building, and with an eye toward historical accuracy, the building was reopened in 1989. This was done in concert with a seismic upgrade called base isolation that placed the weak sandstone structure on a foundation of steel and rubber to better protect it from earthquake damage.</p><br>
<p>In March of 2020, the building was shuttered after a 5.7-magnitude earthquake that shook the Wasatch Front. However, thanks to the base isolation invested in decades ago, the repairs needed were minimal. The building was reopened to the public in November of 2021.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>The Salt Lake City and County Buildings central clock tower is topped with a statue of Columbia and rises 256 feet (78 m) from the ground. The buildings primary axis runs north-south, and large entrances mark each cardinal direction. On the south wing (over the Mayor&#39;s office) is a bronze statue of the goddess Justice. Originally, the building had statues depicting Commerce, Liberty, Justice, and Columbia, but the others were removed following a 1934 earthquake. Columbia and the other missing statues were replaced on top of the building when it was renovated in 1989.</p><br>
<p>The buildings surface is elaborately carved from the gray Utah Kyune sandstone its made of. To the right of the entrance on the south side is the face of Father DeSmet, a Jesuit priest who preached to Native Americans and had contact with the Latter-day Saints before and after they traveled to Utah. To the left is the Spanish conquistador García López de Cárdenas who explored Southern Utah by 1540. Above the granite columns on the east and west sides of the building are carvings of pioneer women. Between the portal and balcony are portraits of Chief Joseph and Chief Wakara and Jim Bridger. Above the west entrance left-to-right are R. N. Baskin, mayor of Salt Lake City in 1892-1895, Jedediah M. Grant, Salt Lakes first mayor in 1851-1857, and Jacob B. Blair Salt Lake Countys probate judge in 1892-1895. The north side features a depiction of the Domínguez–Escalante expedition which entered Utah in 1776 and named many of the states physical features. Gargoyles, eagles, sea monsters, beehives, Masonic icons, suns, and other symbols dot the buildings rich exterior.</p><br>
<p>Walter Baird and Oswald Lendi carved most of the building&#39;s features. Lendi, a French sculptor, whimsically carved his face between the words "City" and "Hall" above the north entrance.</p><br>
<p>The building has five floors and over one hundred rooms. Onyx lines the hall of each lavishly decorated floor. The third floor houses the mayors office in the south wing and the city council chambers in the north. The council meeting room features an 1865 life-sized portrait of Brigham Young. Portraits of the citys past mayors up to and including Ross "Rocky" Anderson line the corridor between these offices. The third floor features an exhibit commemorating the 2002 Winter Olympics held in Salt Lake City.</p><br>
<p>Around the time of the 2002 Salt Lake Olympics, and for a limited time, an electric display depicting the Olympic rings was allowed to be displayed on four sides of the central tower of the City and County building. The Olympic display has since been removed from the building.</p><br>
<h2>Washington Square</h2><br>
<p>The City-County Building sits between State Street, Second East, Fourth South, and Fifth South in Salt Lake City, a block called "Washington Square." Named for George Washington, the block is the site of the original 1847 Mormon pioneers&#39; camp in Salt Lake City.</p><br>
<p>Little Tokyo , also known as Little Tokyo Historic District, is an ethnically Japanese American district in downtown Los Angeles and the heart of the largest Japanese-American population in North America. It is the largest and most populous of only three official Japantowns in the United States, all of which are in California . Founded around the beginning of the 20th century, the area, sometimes called Lil&#39; Tokyo, J-Town, Shō-Tōkyō, is the cultural center for Japanese Americans in Southern California. It was declared a National Historic Landmark District in 1995.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Origins: 1880s</h3><br>
<p>The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 played a pivotal role in the first large wave of Japanese Immigration to the United States as the Japanese were heavily recruited to serve as cheap labor in place of the now excluded Chinese laborers.</p><br>
<p>One of the people influenced by this first wave of Japanese Immigration was Hamanosuke Shigeta, a Japanese seaman who settled in southeast Los Angeles, an area which would eventually become Little Tokyo. There Shigeta established the first Japanese-owned business in LA, Kame Restaurant, along the East First Street. Attracted by the restaurant and nearby demands for labor, other Japanese immigrant men followed suit as they settled along East First Street in nearby boarding houses.</p><br>
<p>The first Japanese boarding house in Los Angeles was established by Sanjuro Mizuno, who opened the Santa Fe Boarding House in 1898 to cater to Japanese laborers. To house the wave of new immigrants coming to Little Tokyo, early immigrants also opened more of them.</p><br>
<h3>Initial development: Late 1890s to 1930s</h3><br>
<p>By the early 1900s, the Japanese population in Little Tokyo had reached a population of around 3,000. It jumped to 10,000 following the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake, which convinced many Japanese to move from San Francisco to Los Angeles.</p><br>
<p>In 1907, The Gentleman&#39;s Agreement was signed between Japan and the United States in which Japan voluntarily restricted the emigration of Japanese laborers, allowing only families of current residents to immigrate, in exchange for the United States to ensure no discrimination against the Japanese people in the US. The implementation of the agreement led to an influx of women who joined family or husbands as new brides in Little Tokyo. As a result, Little Tokyo saw a growth in community and the establishment of a commercial district. By 1908, around 90 Japanese-run boarding houses could be found throughout Los Angeles. in Little Tokyo the day after the Pearl Harbor attack, December 8, 1941</p><br>
<p>In 1909, Little Tokyo was described as "bounded by San Pedro, First and Requena Streets and Central Avenue. The Los Angeles Times added: "It has a population of about 3,500 Japanese... there are 10,000 Japanese in the city who make this section their rendezvous."</p><br>
<p>The area was a magnet for immigrating Japanese until the Exclusion Act of 1924 halted any further migration. Shops were along First Street, and vegetable markets were along Central Avenue to the south. Japanese Americans were a significant ethnic group in the vegetable trade, due to the number of successful Japanese American truck farms across Southern California.</p><br>
<h4>Institutions, associations, and establishments</h4><br>
<p>The East First Street area is where the first Japanese institutions, associations, and establishments were founded in Los Angeles as Issei (first generation Japanese immigrants) began to congregate in the area. The first Japanese religious institution founded in Little Tokyo was the Japanese Episcopal Mission of Los Angeles, now Century United Methodist Church, founded in June 1896 by a group of 5 issei from southern Japan. Other religious institutions continued to be founded: the Koyasan Buddhist Temple (1912), Japanese Union Church (1923), and Hompa Hongwaji Buddhist Temple (1925).</p><br>
<p>The growing population in Little Tokyo was supplemented by the establishment of primary, secondary, and trade schools. A large amount of trade schools in Little Tokyo were sewing schools. The largest was the Rafu Yossai Gakuen which taught sewing skills to Issei women.</p><br>
<p>During this time period various newspapers catered towards Japanese Americans in Los Angeles were founded. The first Japanese newspaper in the United States was Rafu Shimpo, founded in Little Tokyo in 1903 and which continues to operate.</p><br>
<p>Founded during this time were rotating savings and credit associations known as tanomoshiko, which provided funding towards emerging business ventures in Little Tokyo.</p><br>
<p>Community Leaders in the 1920s and 1930s established local entities of prominent Japanese American associations such as the Central Japanese Association, Japanese American Citizen&#39;s League (JACL), and the Japanese American Chamber of Commerce. Concurrently, these leaders worked with Japan to establish kenjinkai or mutual aid societies each associated to one of the Japanese Prefectures. These associations would provide mutual aid and social opportunities to Japanese families that had immigrated from the same prefecture represented by the association. By 1940, the breadth of kenjinkai covered 40/46 Japanese Prefectures.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>In 1941, Little Tokyo reached its peak population with approximately 30,000 Japanese Americans living in Little Tokyo. The 1941 Pearl Harbor bombing brought an end to the increase in Japanese American population in Little Tokyo. The incarceration of Japanese Americans during World War II emptied Little Tokyo.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in 1942, after the citys Japanese population was rounded up and "evacuated" to inland concentration camps, a large number of African Americans from the South moved to Los Angeles to find work in the labor-starved defense industry. Its share in the Second Great Migration almost tripled Little Tokyos pre-war population, with some 80,000 new arrivals taking up residence there. For a brief time, the area became known as Bronzeville, as African Americans and also Native Americans and Latinos moved into the vacated properties and opened up nightclubs, restaurants, and other businesses. Prohibited from buying and renting in most parts of the city by restrictive covenants, the area soon became severely overcrowded. A single bathroom was often shared by up to 40 people and one room could house as many as 16 occupants; people frequently shared "hot beds," sleeping in shifts. Poor housing conditions helped spread communicable illnesses like tuberculosis and venereal disease. Crimes like robberies, rapes, and hit-and-run accidents increased, and in May and June 1943 Latino and some African American residents of Bronzeville were attacked by whites in the Zoot Suit race riots.</p><br>
<p>In 1943, officials bowed to pressure from frustrated residents and proposed building temporary housing in nearby Willowbrook, but the majority-white residents of the unincorporated city resisted the plans. In 1944, 57 Bronzeville buildings were condemned as unfit for habitation and 125 ordered repaired or renovated; approximately 50 of the evicted families were sent to the Jordan Downs housing complex. In 1945, many defense industry jobs disappeared and the workers moved elsewhere in search of new employment. Others were pushed out when Japanese Americans began to return and white landlords chose not to renew leases with their wartime tenants.</p><br>
<h3>Post World War II</h3><br>
<p>Following the War, many previous Japanese residents returned to Little Tokyo to continue managing businesses by purchasing Bronzeville business leases. Albeit smaller, a commercial core still managed to exist in Little Tokyo. Due to lack of housing in Little Tokyo, many Japanese Americans returning from the camps moved into apartments and boarding houses in the neighborhoods surrounding downtown Los Angeles. Notably, Boyle Heights, just east of Little Tokyo, had a large Japanese American population in the 1950s (as it had before the internment) until the arrival of Mexican and Latino immigrants replaced most of them. The post-war Japanese-American population in Little Tokyo had become only one-third of its pre-war population.</p><br>
<p>Many Issei and Nisei who had previously owned large businesses or were heavily involved in agriculture now returned with little resources to work in civil service or other simple jobs. Concurrently, a large redevelopment plan was put in place to be enacted in the early 1950s, but due to a lack of state funding and wealth in the Japanese-American community following three years of internment, the plan fell to stagnation.</p><br>
<p>Following the construction there of the Los Angeles Police Department headquarters in 1953, Little Tokyos commercial area shrunk by one fourth from its original size. 1,000 residents were displaced to other parts of Los Angeles. The current site of Parker Center, the LAPDs former headquarters, was the original site of the Nishi Hongwanji Buddhist Temple. The south edge of the block where Parker Center stands was part of the First Street business strip of shops. The warehouses and new condominiums to the east of Little Tokyo were once residential areas of the district.</p><br>
<p>Similar urban development would continue in the 1960s and 1970s, further shrinking the extent of the coverage of Little Tokyo.</p><br>
<h3>1970s to present</h3><br>
<p>In the 1970s, a redevelopment movement started as Japanese corporations expanded overseas operations and many of them set up their USA headquarters in the Los Angeles area. Named the Little Tokyo Project, this movement resulted in the opening of several new shopping plazas and hotels opened, along with branches of some major Japanese banks. Although this redevelopment resulted in many new buildings and shopping centers, there are still some of the original Little Tokyo buildings and restaurants, especially along First Street.</p><br>
<p>During the 1970s and 1980s, artists began to move into nearby aging warehouse spaces in the area, forming a hidden community in the industrialized area. Als Bar, Gorkys, the Atomic Cafe and LA Contemporary Exhibitions (LACE) are some well-known sites.</p><br>
<p>Land use has been a contentious issue in Little Tokyo due to its history, the proximity to the Los Angeles Civic Center neighborhood, the role of Los Angeles as a site of business between Japan and America, and the increasing influx of residents into the Arts District. Unlike a traditional ethnic enclave, there are relatively few Japanese residents in the area. Even so, the Japanese-American community was politicized by the internment and redress effort, which, along with the global and local growth of overseas Japanese investment, has assured that Little Tokyo has continued to exist as a tourist attraction, community center, and home to Japanese-American senior citizens and others.</p><br>
<p>During its inception in 1980, the Weller Court mall was opposed by some people in the community because it redeveloped a strip of family-owned small businesses. Community activists established First Street as a historic district in 1986. In 2004, they helped reopen the Far East Cafe, an acknowledged community hub.</p><br>
<p>Little Tokyo continues to develop and change with the general development of the greater Los Angeles Area through ordinances, construction, coalitions, etc. The 2024 announcement of First North Residences and the Go For Broke Plaza, promises to provide essential housing units while serving as a permanent home for the Go For Broke National Education Center, a nonprofit dedicated to educating the public about the courage and sacrifices of Japanese-American soldiers.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>At its peak, Little Tokyo had approximately 30,000 Japanese Americans living in the area. Little Tokyo is still a cultural focal point for Los Angeles&#39;s Japanese American population. It is mainly a work, cultural, religious, restaurant and shopping district, because Japanese Americans today are likely to live in nearby cities such as Torrance, Gardena, and Monterey Park, as well as the Sawtelle district in the Westside of Los Angeles. However, the recent boom in downtown residential construction is changing the nature of Little Tokyo.</p><br>
<p>What is left of the original Little Tokyo can be found in roughly five large city blocks. It is bounded on the west by Los Angeles Street, on the east by Alameda Street, on the south by 3rd Street, and on the north by First Street, but also includes a substantial portion of the block north of First and west of Alameda, location of the Japanese American National Museum, the Go For Broke Monument, and a row of historic shops which lines the north side of First Street. A timeline has been set into the concrete in front of these shops, using bronze lettering, showing the history of each of the shops from the early 20th Century until the renovation of the district in the late 1980s. More broadly, Little Tokyo is bordered by the Los Angeles River to the east, downtown Los Angeles to the west, L.A. City Hall the Parker Center to the north, and Skid Row to the south.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<h3>Museums and galleries</h3><br>
<p>Museums include the Japanese American National Museum and an extension of the Museum of Contemporary Art, formerly called the Temporary Contemporary and now known as the Geffen Contemporary (named after David Geffen). Additionally, the visual arts are represented by the arts non-profit, LAArtcore which devotes itself to creating awareness of the visual arts through 24 exhibitions each year along with educational programming. An art gallery called 123 Astronaut is housed within a kiosk on Astronaut Ellison Onizuka Street and contains a monument to Astronaut Ellison S. Onizuka, a Japanese American from Hawaii who was a mission specialist on the Space Shuttle Challenger when it disintegrated during takeoff in 1986.</p><br>
<h3>Public art</h3><br>
<p>Little Tokyo has a variety of public art, including a memorial statue of Chiune Sugihara, Japanese consul to Lithuania before World War II and Righteous among the Nations.</p><br>
<h3>Events</h3><br>
<p>The Nisei Week festival is held every August, and includes a large parade, a pageant, athletic events, exhibits of Japanese art and culture, a taiko drum festival, the Japanese Festival Street Faire, a car show, and other events.</p><br>
<h3>Gardens</h3><br>
<p>There are also two Japanese gardens in the area open to the public: the James Irvine garden in the Japanese American Cultural and Community Center and a rooftop garden in the Kyoto Grand Hotel and Gardens, formerly the New Otani Hotel. The Go for Broke Monument commemorates Japanese Americans who served in the United States Military during World War II.</p><br>
<h3>Performing arts</h3><br>
<p>With its proximity to Hollywood and its concentration as a focal point for the Pan Asian American community, Little Tokyo Los Angeles has long served as an incubator for Asian American and Pacific Islander artists and performers sporting a high concentration of legacy institutions.</p><br>
<p>East West Players, one of the nation&#39;s first Asian American theater companies and the longest continuously running theatre of color in the nation, specializing in live theater written and performed by Asian American artists, is located in Little Tokyo, performing in the David Henry Hwang Theater, a 230-seat venue in the Union Center for the Performing Arts.</p><br>
<p>The Japanese American Community and Cultural Center (JACCC) runs the 800 seat Aratani Theater, which features theatre, dance, concerts as well as cultural performances and events.</p><br>
<p>Visual Communications, an Asian Pacific American media arts organization that annually presents VC FilmFest (Los Angeles Asian Pacific Film Festival), in several venues around Little Tokyo.</p><br>
<p>Tuesday Night Project is the longest running Asian American open Mic event in the nation running every 1st and 3rd Tuesday from April through October in the public courtyard of the Union Center for the Arts</p><br>
<p>Cold Tofu Improv was founded in 1981 as the nation&#39;s first Asian American Improv & Comedy Group. Teaching classes in short form and long form improv.</p><br>
<p>Kollaboration founded in 2000, is an organization focusing on advancing Asian, Pacific Islander, and Desi Americans (APIDA) in the Music and entertainment industries. With affiliates in San Francisco, Atlanta, Hawaii, Houston, Boston and throughout the country, the organization hosts its annual national culmination "KOLLABORATION STAR" event at the Aratani Theatre, as well as their EMPOWER conference as incubator events for APIDA artists in the music industry.</p><br>
<p>With the proximity of these organizations and Arts non-profit organizations, many notable actors, musicians and entertainers of AAPI descent have either begun their careers here, or continue to maintain a presence. East West Players saw the early careers of actors such as Daniel Dae Kim, John Cho, Reggie Lee, Amy Hill, Lucy Liu, Isa Briones, as well as playwrights Qui Nguyen. Lauren Yee, and David Henry Hwang. In 2018, actor George Takei returned to Little Tokyo for the first Post Broadway staging of the musical Allegiance by Jay Kuo & Lorenzo Thione co-produced by East West Players and the at the Aratani Theatre. The Aratani has also served as a home venue to the Grammy Nominated Jazz fusion group Hiroshima (band) founded by Dan Kuramoto & June Kuramoto. Actress Tamlyn Tomita began her career when she was crowned "Nisei Week Queen" in 1984 which led to her breakout casting in The Karate Kid Part 2. Filmmakers such as Justin Lin, Quentin Lee, and Justin Chon have premiered some of their early career making films at the Los Angeles Asian Pacific Film Festival. Actor Dante Basco has been a mainstay performing his poetry alongside many others at Tuesday Night Project. Musicians such as AJ Rafael, Jane Lui, MC Jin and more have long relationships with Kollaboration since before the "youtube-boom" that saw many AAPI artists and musicians find an internet based audience.</p><br>
<p>Little Tokyo continues to be a major convening point for AAPI artists in the entertainment industry, and a central incubator for the nation having twice before hosted the National Asian American Theatre Conference and Festival put on by the Consortium of Asian American Theatre Artists. Little Tokyo has also seen the rise of many adjacent movements in the AAPI entertainment world such as Asian American theater companies Teada, Lodestone Theatre, Artists at Play, Hereandnow Theatre, Asian AF Comedy shows, and the Comedy Comedy Festival.</p><br>
<h3>Shopping and dining</h3><br>
<p>There are numerous Japanese restaurants, catering to both Japanese and non-Japanese clientele. Many of them specialize in one type of Japanese cuisine, such as donburi, Japanese noodles (soba, ramen and udon), shabu-shabu (which translated from Japanese means swish-swish, referring to the motion of dipping meat and vegetables in a communal bowl of boiling water), Japanese curry, sushi, or yakitori. There are also a number of yakiniku restaurants, where meat is often cooked on a small grill built into the center of the table. Little Tokyo is the birthplace of the California roll, invented by a chef named Ichiro Mashita at the Tokyo Kaikan sushi restaurant.</p><br>
<p>Two wagashi (Japanese sweets) shops located in Little Tokyo are among the oldest food establishments in Los Angeles. Fugetsu-do, founded in 1903, appears to be the oldest still-operating food establishment in the city and the first one to celebrate a centennial; its best-known offerings include mochi and manjū, and it claims to be an inventor of the fortune cookie. Mikawaya was founded in 1910, but is now well known as the company that introduced mochi ice cream to the United States in 1994.</p><br>
<p>Little Tokyo has several shops that specialize in Japanese-language videos and DVDs, while other shops specialize in Japanese electronics and video games. These are a great way to find Japanese video games that were either never translated into English, or were never domestically released in North America. There are also several stores that sell manga and anime related products.</p><br>
<h4>Japanese Village Plaza</h4><br>
<p>The Japanese Village Plaza is located roughly in the center of Little Tokyo on the east side of San Pedro Street. There are several restaurants in the plaza, plus a number of shops geared towards tourists. First Street and Second Street border Japanese Village Plaza and have a number of restaurants that are open later than those in the court.</p><br>
<h4>Weller Court</h4><br>
<p>The Weller Court shopping mall is located along Astronaut Ellison S Onizuka St., backing up to 2nd St. on the south and what was originally the New Otani Hotel, now the DoubleTree by Hilton Hotel Los Angeles Downtown, along Los Angeles Street, to the north and west. It has several restaurants, karaoke clubs, and a Bubble Tea cafe. For tourists visiting from Japan, there are a number of shops specializing in expensive name brand products such as Coach handbags. There is also a large bookstore, Kinokuniya, that is part of a well-known Japanese chain. They have a large selection of Japanese-language books, magazines, music CDs, manga, and anime, as well as a selection of English-language books on Japanese subjects and translated manga and anime.</p><br>
<p>Weller Court was the second major project of the East West Development Corporation in association with the Community Redevelopment Agency, after the $30 million New Otani. Groundbreaking was held in November 1978, to be completed in 1979 with 62,780 ft&sup2; of gross leasable area. The architect was Kajima Associates.</p><br>
<p>In the 1920s, the southeast corner of First Street was the beginning of Little Tokyo. At this corner was the Tomio Building, home to the Japanese-American Tomio Department Store, and two more Japanese-American department stores, the Asia Company and Hori Brothers.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>The area is served by the Los Angeles Unified School District.</p><br>
<p>9th Street Elementary School</p><br>
<p>Belmont High School</p><br>
<p>Los Angeles Public Library operates the Little Tokyo Branch.</p><br>
<p>The main office of the Asahi Gakuen, a part-time Japanese school, was formerly in room 308 on the third floor of the Japanese American Cultural & Community Center (, 日米文化会館 Nichibei Bunka Kaikan) building, located in Little Tokyo. Since then, it moved to Harbor Gateway, near Torrance.</p><br>
<h2>Religion</h2><br>
<p>There are several Buddhist temples in or near Little Tokyo, representing many major schools of Japanese Buddhism: Jodo Shinshu, Jodo Shu, Shingon, Nichiren, and Soto Zen. They are Zenshuji Soto Mission, Los Angeles Hompa Hongwanji (usually called Nishi Hongwanji), Higashi Honganji, Koyasan Buddhist Temple, Nichiren Shu Beikoku Betsuin, and the Jodo Shu North America Buddhist Missions. Together they form the Los Angeles Buddhist Temple Federation (Jodo Shinshu temples in Long Beach and near USC are also members).</p><br>
<p>Little Tokyo is also home to Japanese American Christian communities. Centenary United Methodist Church was founded in 1896 by first-generation Japanese American immigrants. Union Church of Los Angeles, founded in 1918, represents a long tradition of Japanese American Presbyterianism.</p><br>
<p>St. Francis Xavier Chapel and Japanese Catholic Center (also known as "Maryknoll") has been the base of the Japanese Catholic community in Los Angeles since 1912. Fr Albert Breton, a Japanese-speaking missionary of the Paris Foreign Mission Society, with the support of Bishop Thomas Conaty of the Diocese of Los Angeles, established the community on December 25, 1912. The first Japanese Mass was celebrated at the Bronson House on Jackson Street near the current Fukui Mortuary on Temple Street. The center also formerly housed the Maryknoll School, administered by the Maryknoll Fathers from the early 1920s until the mid-1990s. Currently, Masses are offered in Japanese and English at St. Francis Xavier each Sunday.</p><br>
<p>One of the roots of Pentecostalism started in Little Tokyo. Where the Japanese American Cultural and Community Center Plaza is now located was once the home of the First Pentecostal Church, a multiracial congregation called the Azusa Street Mission. This is where the Azusa Street Revival started in 1906. Earlier, it was also the site of First African Methodist Episcopal Church.</p><br>
<p>The former Catholic Cathedral of Saint Vibiana is just to the west of Little Tokyo. After being heavily damaged in the 1994 Northridge earthquake, the archdiocese moved to a new site (now the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels) and the old site was redeveloped. The former cathedral was converted into a performing arts space and non-historic buildings on the site demolished and replaced with a new Little Tokyo Branch of the Los Angeles Public Library.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>The community is served by the Metro A Line and Metro E Line at Little Tokyo/Arts District station at the northeastern perimeter of Little Tokyo and is also walkable from the Metro B and D subway lines at either Civic Center/Grand Park station or Union Station – with connections to Amtrak, Metrolink, Metro J Line BRT, and Foothill Transit&#39;s Silver Streak BRT service. When the A and E Lines connected to the former L Line, via the Regional Connector, the original Little Tokyo/Arts District station was moved underground and across the street. This required demolition of two modest, one-story brick buildings. The two structures played an important role in the cultural life of the neighborhood for decades with one of the structures dating back at least to 1898.</p><br>
<p>Metro Local lines 30 and 330 serve Little Tokyo. In March 2020, Metro selected a development firm responsible for constructing the new Regional Connector station. Community representatives from the Little Tokyo Business Association, the Japanese American National Museum, and former USA Transportation Secretary Norman Mineta expressed their concerns about Metro&#39;s decision. Matters regarding the selection process, community needs, and design aesthetics delayed the project. The Little Tokyo/Arts District station was completed and reopened on June 16, 2023.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The district appears in the films Showdown in Little Tokyo, Beverly Hills Ninja and The Crimson Kimono. When the Japanese anime series Kyatto Ninden Teyandee was localized in English as Samurai Pizza Cats, the series&#39; main setting "Edoropolis" was renamed Little Tokyo.</p><br>
<p>Beacon Hill is a historic neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. It is also the location of the Massachusetts State House. The term "Beacon Hill" is used locally as a metonym to refer to the state government or the legislature itself, much like Washington, D.C.&#39;s Capitol Hill does at the federal level.</p><br>
<p>Federal-style rowhouses, narrow gaslit streets and brick sidewalks run through the neighborhood, which is generally regarded as one of the more desirable and expensive in Boston. As of the 2010 USA Census, the population of Boston&#39;s Beacon Hill neighborhood was 9,023.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Like many similarly named areas, the neighborhood is named for the location of a former beacon atop the highest point in central Boston. The beacon was used to warn the residents of an invasion.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Beacon Hill is bounded by Storrow Drive, and Cambridge, Bowdoin, Park and Beacon Streets. It is about 1/6 of a square mile in size, and situated along the riverfront of the Charles River Esplanade to the west, just north of Boston Common and the Boston Public Garden. The block bound by Beacon, Tremont and Park Streets is included as well.</p><br>
<p>Located in the center of the Shawmut Peninsula, the area originally had three hills, Beacon Hill and two others nearby, Pemberton Hill and Mount Vernon, which were leveled for Beacon Hill&#39;s development. The name trimount later morphed into "Tremont", as in Tremont Street.</p><br>
<p>Between 1807 and 1832, Beacon Hill was reduced from 138 feet in elevation to 80 feet. The shoreline and bodies of water such as the Mill Pond had a "massive filling", increasing Boston&#39;s land mass by 150%. Charles Street was one of the new roads created from the project.</p><br>
<p>Before the hill was reduced substantially, Beacon Hill was located just behind the current site of Massachusetts State House.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>According to the 2010 USA Census, the population of Bostons Beacon Hill neighborhood is 9,023. This reflects a slight (0.3% or 29 individuals) decrease from the 2000 Census. The racial/ethnic make-up of the neighborhoods population is as follows: 86.8% of the population is white, 2% black or African American, 4.1% Hispanic or Latino, 0.1% American Indian or Alaska Native, 5.3% Asian, 0.4% some other race/ethnicity, and 1.3% two or more races/ethnicities.</p><br>
<p>According to 2007–2011 American Community Survey estimates, of the 5,411 households in Beacon Hill, 27.3% were family households and 72.7 were non-family households (with 55.7% of those female householders). Of the 1,479 family households 81.6% were married couple families. 36.6% of married couple families were with related children under the age of 18 and 63.4% were with no related children under age 18. Other family types make up 18.4% of Beacon Hill&#39;s population, with 90.8% being female householders with no husband present and a majority of these households included children under 18 present.</p><br>
<h3>Race</h3><br>
<h3>Ancestry</h3><br>
<p>According to the 2012–2016 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates, the largest ancestry groups in ZIP Codes 02108 and 02114 are:</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>17th century</h3><br>
<p>The first European settler was William Blaxton, also spelled Blackstone. In 1625 he built a house and orchard on Beacon Hill&#39;s south slope, roughly at the location of Beacon and Spruce street. The settlement was a "preformal arrangement". In 1630 Boston was settled by the Massachusetts Bay Company. The southwestern slope was used by the city for military drills and livestock grazing. In 1634 a signal beacon was established on the top of the hill.</p><br>
<h3>18th century</h3><br>
<p>Beacon Street was established in 1708 from a cow path to the Boston Common. John Singleton Copley owned land on the south slope for pasture for his cows and farmland.</p><br>
<p>In 1787 Charles Bulfinch designed the Massachusetts State House.</p><br>
<p>The Mount Vernon Proprietors group was formed to develop the trimount area,</p><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<h4>Development</h4><br>
<p>Construction of homes began in earnest at the turn of the century, such as: freestanding mansions, symmetrical pairs of houses, and row houses. Between 1803 and 1805, the first row houses were built for Stephen Higginson.</p><br>
<p>In the 1830s, residential homes were built for wealthy people on Chestnut and Mt. Vernon Streets. Some affluent people moved, beginning in the 1870s, to Back Bay with its "French-inspired boulevards and mansard-roofed houses that were larger, lighter, and airier than the denser Beacon Hill."</p><br>
<p>In the early 19th century, there were "fringe activities" along the Back Bay waterfront, with ropewalks along Beacon and Charles Streets.</p><br>
<h4>South slope</h4><br>
<p>The south slope "became the seat of Boston wealth and power." It was carefully planned for people who left densely populated areas, like the North End. The residents of opulent homes, called the Boston Brahmins, were described by Oliver Wendell Holmes as a "harmless, inoffensive, untitled aristocracy". They had "houses by Charles Bulfinch, their monopoly on Beacon Street, their ancestral portraits and Chinese porcelains, humanitarianism, Unitarian faith in the march of the mind, Yankee shrewdness, and New England exclusiveness."</p><br>
<p>Literary salons and publishing houses were founded in the 19th century. "Great thinkers" lived in the neighborhood, including Daniel Webster, Henry Thoreau and Wendell Phillips.</p><br>
<h4>Flat of the Hill</h4><br>
<p>Development began in the early 19th century. Single family homes often had stores on the first floor for retailers, carpenters and shoemakers. Today, many of the 19th century waterfront landmarks, such as the Charles Street Meeting House, are found far from the water due to the filling that has taken place since then.</p><br>
<h4>=North slope=</h4><br>
<p>The north slope was the home of African Americans, sailors and Eastern and Southern European immigrants. The area around Belknap Street (now Joy Street) in particular became home to more than 1,000 blacks beginning in the mid-1700s. While this community is often described as arising from domestic workers in the homes of white residents on the south slope of the Hill, property records indicate that the black community on the north slope was already well-established by 1805, before the filling-in of the south slope was completed, and so before that slope of Beacon Hill came to be considered an affluent area.</p><br>
<p>Many blacks in the neighborhood attended church with the whites but did not have a vote in church affairs and sat in segregated seating. A Baptist congregation, built the African Meeting House in 1806 and by 1840 there were five black churches. The African Meeting House on Joy Street was a community center for members of the black elite. Frederick Douglass spoke there about abolition, and William Lloyd Garrison formed the New England Anti-Slavery Society at the Meeting House. It became a "hotbed and an important depot on the Underground Railroad."</p><br>
<p>Blacks and whites were largely united on the subject of abolition. Beacon Hill was one of the staunchest centers of the anti-slavery movement in the Antebellum era.</p><br>
<p>One of the earliest black Republican legislators in the United States was Julius Caesar Chappelle (1852–1904), who served as a legislator in Boston from 1883 to 1886 and whose district included the Beacon Hill area. Chappelle was a popular, well-liked politician and was covered by many of the black newspapers in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Blacks migrated to Roxbury and Boston&#39;s South End after the Civil War.</p><br>
<h4>=Immigrants=</h4><br>
<p>In the latter part of the 19th century, Beacon Hill absorbed an influx of Irish, Jewish and other immigrants.</p><br>
<p>Many homes built of brick and wood in the early 19th century were dilapidated by the end of the Civil War and were razed for new housing. Yellow brick townhouses were constructed, generally with arched windows on the first floor and a low ceiling on the top, fourth floor. Residential homes were also converted to boarding houses.</p><br>
<p>The north slope neighborhood transitioned as blacks moved out of the neighborhood and immigrants, such as Eastern European Jews, made their homes in the community. The Vilna Shul was established in 1898, and the African Meeting House was converted into a synagogue.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>Better transportation service to the suburbs and other cities led a boom to the city&#39;s economy at the beginning of the 20th century. New buildings, "compatible with the surroundings", were built and older buildings renovated. To ensure that there were controls on new development and demolition, the Beacon Hill Association was formed in 1922. Into the 1940s there were attempts to replace brick sidewalks, but the projects were abandoned due to community resistance.</p><br>
<p>Banks, restaurants and other service industries moved into the "Flat of the Hill", with a resulting transformation of the neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>Red-light districts operated near Beacon Hill in Scollay Square and the West End until a 1950s urban renewal project renovated the area. To prevent urban renewal projects of historically significant buildings in Beacon Hill, its residents ensured that the community obtained historic district status: south slope in 1955, Flat of the Hill in 1958, and north slope in 1963. The Beacon Hill Architectural Commission was established in 1955 to monitor renovation and development projects. For instance, in 1963, 70-72 Mount Vernon Street was to be demolished for the construction of an apartment building. A compromise was made to maintain the building and its exterior and build new apartments inside.</p><br>
<h4>Historic district and national landmark</h4><br>
<p>In 1955, state legislation Chapter 616 created the Historic Beacon Hill District. It was the first such district in Massachusetts, created to protect historic sites and manage urban renewal. Supporting these objectives is the local non-profit Beacon Hill Civic Association. According to the Massachusetts Historical Commission, the historic districts "appear to have stabilized architectural fabric" of Beacon Hill.</p><br>
<p>Beacon Hill was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 19, 1962.</p><br>
<h3>21st century</h3><br>
<p>Wealthy Boston families continue to live at the Flat of the Hill and south slope. Inhabitants of the north slope include Suffolk University students and professionals.</p><br>
<h2>Sites of interest</h2><br>
<h3>Black Heritage Trail</h3><br>
<p>The Boston African American National Historic Site is located just north of Boston Common. The historic buildings along todays Black Heritage Trail were the homes, businesses, schools and churches of the black community. Charles Street Meeting House was built in 1807, the church had seating that segregated white and black people. The Museum of African American History, New Englands largest museum dedicated to African American history, is located at the African Meeting House, adjacent to the Abiel Smith School. The meeting house is the oldest surviving Black church built by African Americans. The Robert Gould Shaw Memorial and the 54th Massachusetts Regiment Memorial are located at Beacon Street and Park Street, opposite the Massachusetts State House.</p><br>
<h3>Massachusetts State House</h3><br>
<p>The Massachusetts State House, located on Beacon Street, is the home of the Commonwealths government. The gold-domed state capitol building was designed by Charles Bulfinch and was completed in 1798. Many of the countrys state capitol buildings were modeled after the State House.</p><br>
<h3>Organizations</h3><br>
<h4>Community</h4><br>
<p>The Beacon Hill Civic Association has a long history as a community resource for the Beacon Hill neighborhood. Founded in 1922 by neighbors with the goal of preventing home building and other construction, today it continues as a volunteer advocacy organization focused on improving quality of life in the neighborhood. It was first founded to fight city plans to replace the neighborhoods brick sidewalks. Since then its efforts have been instrumental in preserving Beacon Hill as a historic district, and have expanded to include such initiatives as: working to become the first neighborhood to receive resident parking permits, streamlining trash service, and creating a virtual retirement community serving the neighborhoods elderly.</p><br>
<h4>Non-religious</h4><br>
<p>The Club of Odd Volumes, a historic organization on Mount Vernon Street, serves as a Bibliophiles club, library, and archive. The Headquarters House, also known as William Hickling Prescott House, is a museum run by the Society of Colonial Dames. The country&#39;s oldest legal organization, the Boston Bar Association, is on Beacon Street. Beacon Hill Village was the first formal Elder Village in the United States.</p><br>
<h4>Religious</h4><br>
<p>Religious organizations include the Vilna Shul, an Orthodox Jewish synagogue, and the Unitarian Universalist Association headquarters. Church of the Advent is a Victorian Gothic Church, faced in brick with 8 massive change ringing bells and a 172-foot spire. The Park Street Church, nicknamed "Brimstone Corner" in the 19th century, was used to store gunpowder during the War of 1812. Samuel Francis Smith first sang his song America the Beautiful at this church in 1831. Two years earlier William Lloyd Garrison spoke to the congregation about abolishing slavery. One of the few outposts of the small Protestant group the Swedenborgian Church is on Bowdoin Street, and was embroiled in controversy in 2013 over alleged extortion by a former mafioso. While home to a Paulist chapel, Beacon Hill is currently one of only two neighborhoods in Boston that does not contain a Catholic parish church.</p><br>
<h3>Neighborhoods</h3><br>
<p>Beacon Hill is predominantly residential, known for old colonial brick row houses with "beautiful doors, decorative iron work, brick sidewalks, narrow streets, and gas lamps". Restaurants and antique shops are located on Charles Street.</p><br>
<p>Louisburg Square is "the most prestigious address" in Beacon Hill. Its residents have access to private parking and live in "magnificent Greek Revival townhouses." Nearby is Acorn Street, often mentioned as the "most frequently photographed street in the United States." It is a narrow lane paved with cobblestones that was home to coachmen employed by families in Mt. Vernon and Chestnut Street mansions.</p><br>
<p>The Harrison Gray Otis House on Cambridge Street was built in 1796. Charles Bulfinch designed this house, and two additional houses, for the businessman and politician who was instrumental in Beacon Hill&#39;s development and Boston becoming the state capital. The Otis House also houses the headquarters of Historic New England, previously known as Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities. Other notable houses are the Francis Parkman House and an 1804 townhouse, now the Nichols House Museum. The Nichols House "offers a rare glimpse inside Brahmin life" of Rose Standish Nichols, a landscape artists.</p><br>
<h3>Suffolk University</h3><br>
<p>Suffolk University and its Law School are adjacent to the Massachusetts State House and the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court. The Suffolk University Law School was founded in 1906.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) subway stations in Beacon Hill are:</p><br>
<p>Park Street – Red and Green Lines</p><br>
<p>Bowdoin – Blue Line</p><br>
<p>Charles/MGH – Red Line</p><br>
<p>MBTA bus, MBTA commuter rail, and ferry services are also available.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Beacon Hill has been home to many notable persons, including:</p><br>
<p>Mildred Albert</p><br>
<p>Louisa May Alcott, author of Little Women</p><br>
<p>John Albion Andrew</p><br>
<p>William Blaxton, original owner of Beacon Hill</p><br>
<p>Edwin Booth, actor; brother of John Wilkes Booth</p><br>
<p>Peter Bent Brigham</p><br>
<p>Charles Bulfinch</p><br>
<p>John Cheever, author</p><br>
<p>Ednah Dow Littlehale Cheney</p><br>
<p>John Singleton Copley</p><br>
<p>Michael Crichton, author</p><br>
<p>Robert Frost, poet</p><br>
<p>James Gibson (Captain)</p><br>
<p>Janet Doub Erickson</p><br>
<p>John Hancock</p><br>
<p>Chester Harding</p><br>
<p>Teresa Heinz</p><br>
<p>Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.</p><br>
<p>Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.</p><br>
<p>Julia Ward Howe</p><br>
<p>Abigail Johnson</p><br>
<p>Edward M. Kennedy</p><br>
<p>John Kerry</p><br>
<p>Henry Cabot Lodge</p><br>
<p>James Russell Lowell</p><br>
<p>Robert Lowell</p><br>
<p>Mary Osgood</p><br>
<p>Harrison Gray Otis</p><br>
<p>Sylvia Plath</p><br>
<p>William Prescott</p><br>
<p>Eleanor Raymond</p><br>
<p>C. Allen Thorndike Rice</p><br>
<p>Henry Rice</p><br>
<p>David Lee Roth</p><br>
<p>George Santayana</p><br>
<p>Anne Sexton</p><br>
<p>Robert Gould Shaw</p><br>
<p>Carly Simon, singer-songwriter</p><br>
<p>Charles Sumner</p><br>
<p>Uma Thurman, actress</p><br>
<p>David Walker</p><br>
<p>Gretchen Osgood Warren</p><br>
<p>Fiske Warren</p><br>
<p>Daniel Webster</p><br>
<p>Jack Welch</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Published in 1937, the Pulitzer-Prize-winning novel The Late George Apley by John Phillips Marquand satirizes the upper-class white residents of Beacon Hill.</p><br>
<p>William Kane, one of the protagonists in the Jeffrey Archer novel Kane and Abel, lives in Beacon Hill.</p><br>
<p>On Beacon Street, the Bull and Finch Bar was the inspiration and source of exterior shots for the Cheers television show.</p><br>
<p>Make Way for Ducklings (Viking, 1941) is a children&#39;s picture book written and illustrated by Robert McCloskey. Most of the story is set at the foot of Beacon Hill, especially the route taken by the fictional Mrs. Mallard and her children on foot across Beacon Street. It is commemorated every year in May by a parade through Beacon Hill to the Boston Public Garden, where the mallards nested.</p><br>
<p>Nine Lives; or, the celebrated cat of Beacon Hill (Pantheon, 1951) is a 62-page childrens book by the novelist Edward Fenton (1917–1995) and illustrator Paul Galdone. "A wealthy, elderly Boston matron adopts a scruffy tomcat and while she is away on a trip her jealous butler tries very hard to destroy all nine of the cats lives."</p><br>
<p>The 1968 Norman Jewison film The Thomas Crown Affair is set and was largely filmed in and around Beacon Hill.</p><br>
<p>Dr. Charles Emerson Winchester was born and raised there, and in an episode of MASH swears "By Beacon Hill" to get revenge on the commanding officer who sent him to MASH 4077.</p><br>
<p>Robert Lowell&#39;s prose sketch 91 Revere Street was inspired by his childhood home on Beacon Hill.</p><br>
<p>Dr. Michaela Quinn of Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman was raised on Beacon Hill.</p><br>
<p>Dr. Maura Isles of TNT&#39;s Rizzoli & Isles lives on Beacon Hill.</p><br>
<p>Asclepia, a small private hospital, is mentioned in Patrick OBrians sixth Aubrey-Maturin novel, The Fortune of War, as being "in a dry, healthy location near Beacon Hill."</p><br>
<p>The NBC TV series Banacek (1972–1974) was set and partially filmed on Beacon Hill. Its main character "Thomas Banacek" played by George Peppard grew up in nearby "Scollay Square" and lived in the "Second Harrison Grey Otis House."</p><br>
<p>The Mask and Wig Club, a private club in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, founded in 1889, is a historic collegiate musical comedy troupe. Created as an alternative to the existing theatrical and dramatic outlets at the University of Pennsylvania, Mask and Wig has presented comedy, music, and dancing to the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, and audiences across the country. Its credo is "Justice to the stage; credit to the University."</p><br>
<p>The clubs performers, or "The Cast," put on two all-original shows each year in collaboration with the Clubs own Stage Crew, Band, and Business Staff.</p><br>
<p>A number of Mask and Wig original songs were made famous on the radio by mid 20th century recording artists. "The Gypsy in My Soul," written by Clay Boland and Moe Jaffe for a 1937 show, was recorded by Benny Goodman, Tommy Dorsey, and Ella Fitzgerald. "Daddy", written by Bobby Troup for a 1941 show, was recorded by Sammy Kaye, Glen Miller and the Andrews Sisters. Troup went on to write the jazz standard "Route 66," which was recorded by Nat King Cole, Bing Crosby (with the Andrews Sisters), and later the Rolling Stones. The first electrically recorded album ever released was Mask and Wig&#39;s "Joan of Arkansas," in April 1925.</p><br>
<p>In a September 30, 2021, press release, the club announced an initiative to remove gender as a qualification for membership, and to expand participation and membership to all genders for the first time in its 134-year history starting with the Fall 2022 recruitment cycle.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Mask and Wig Club of the University of Pennsylvania was first conceived of in 1888 by a small group of undergraduates, led by Clayton Fotterall McMichael, who were interested in the stage and desired something the University did not offer: a troupe that would produce original humorous theatrical pieces.</p><br>
<p>McMichael and his peers envisioned a group that involved dressing up in frocks and performing spoofs and parodies. Because colleges at the time were open only to young gentlemen, any production was limited to an all–male cast. These organizations naturally saw burlesque, which was quite popular in that era, as the perfect genre. The overblown characterizations, loose plotting, musical interludes, and parody of high art made the style perfect for a group of young, well-educated, amateur men, especially since the drag tradition came "built-in".</p><br>
<p>Founder McMichael combed the local bookstores for a story to produce and found it in Henry Byrons The Nymphs of the Lurleyburg. A substantially altered version, "Lurline", the Clubs first production, hit the boards at the Chestnut Street Opera House on June 4, 1889, for one night only. Backed financially by the ladies of Philadelphia high society, the Club enjoyed great success in its early years. With increasingly reliable audience turnout and revenue from ticket sales, the runs were extended and the Club established a fine tradition among Philadelphia&#39;s theater-going society. Moreover, the club made a very strong impression on campus and it achieved great notoriety within its first year of existence.</p><br>
<p>In 1894 the Club purchased a property at 310 South Quince Street to serve as a gathering place and rehearsal hall, the Mask and Wig Clubhouse. The building had been erected by the first African-American Lutheran congregation in America as St. Pauls Lutheran Church in 1834, but had been sold in 1839 and converted into a coachhouse and stable, and later into a dissecting room for medical students. Prominent Philadelphia architect Wilson Eyre was commissioned to remodel the building and hired the young Maxfield Parrish, who would later become one of the greatest illustrators of the 20th century, to decorate the interior. The Grille Room was decorated with caricatures of members, a tradition that continues today, with the second century of members caricatures continued upstairs at the entrance to the auditorium. Eyre expanded the clubhouse to its present size, 1901-1903.</p><br>
<p>The Club prospered throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The middle of this century was a heady time for the Club. Mask and Wig songs were the rage of the big band orchestras, radio shows, and solo acts of the day. The likes of Frank Sinatra, Glenn Miller, Tommy Dorsey, Benny Goodman, Count Basie, Rosemary Clooney, and Les Brown all covered Mask and Wig tunes. Between 1952 and 1958, the club appeared four times on The Ed Sullivan Show. The 1961 production, Wry on the Rocks, introduced a satirical revue format in a cabaret atmosphere. In 1992, with Myth America, Mask and Wig returned the student–written book musical to its stage, a practice which continues to this day. Important in the shows success are the traditional high standards in the caliber of performers and excellence of the material performed. The Clubs primary purpose has always been and continues to be, "Justice to the stage; credit to the University."</p><br>
<p>Immediately after the end of World War II the Mask and Wig dormitory on the residence quadrangle was used to house a USA Army unit assigned to quickly learn the Japanese language. Upon the completion of the study, the soldiers were to be commissioned in the USA Army and serve in the Counterintelligence Corps (CIC) of the Army in Japan. This army unit had classes in the University in the Egyptian Antiquities room while being scrutinized by several mummies. Classes were also held in the Wharton School of Business. Jerry Epple, a member of the Army Specialized Training Program, says he remembers to this day the stone carving of a mask and wig near the dormitory entrance.</p><br>
<p>Mask and Wig&#39;s yearly tour over spring break brings the show to alumni clubs across the nation.</p><br>
<h2>Organization</h2><br>
<h3>Club organization</h3><br>
<p>The Mask and Wig Club is unique in that it consists of both alumni and undergraduate members who have participated in the Annual Production. The Troupe consists of undergraduates who audition each fall and are selected into the various company sections (see below).</p><br>
<p>The Club produces the Annual Production and maintains and operates its own landmark theater at 310 South Quince Street (see below). The Clubhouse is a popular wedding and event venue in Philadelphia and was named "Best Party Venue" by Philadelphia Magazine in 2010.</p><br>
<h3>Undergraduate sections</h3><br>
<p>The Mask and Wig Club is made up of four distinct sections: the cast, the band, the crew, and the business staff.</p><br>
<p>The cast writes and performs material for productions. The band functions as a pit orchestra, playing original, self-arranged pieces for the Undergraduate Fall Show, and professionally arranged pieces for the Annual Production. The band also holds the headliner spot at the University of Pennsylvanias annual Spring Fling festival in the Quad. The crew builds elaborate, ornate, and completely original sets for Productions. The business staff is responsible for advertising and selling tickets for the Clubs shows.</p><br>
<h2>Performances</h2><br>
<h3>Free Show</h3><br>
<p>Free Show is the first Mask and Wig show of the academic year. The show is held during the first week of the academic year and is free of charge to all new freshmen. The cast performs classic bits that are tried and true. Free Show serves a few purposes: it introduces the new freshmen of the University of Pennsylvania to one of Penns oldest institutions and hopes to recruit new members by displaying what membership in the group entails. In 2018, for the first time, the Free Show was performed in collaboration with Penns all-female musical sketch comedy troupe, Bloomers.</p><br>
<h3>Undergraduate Fall Show</h3><br>
<p>Each fall, the undergraduates produce their own sketch comedy show that runs for one week in a theater on Penn&#39;s campus. The upperclassmen handle all aspects of production from acting direction to choreography to musical production. A notable highlight of the show is the Second Act Opener, which consists of a medley of songs from a famous musician or group, but with parodied lyrics that often follow a Penn-centered plot. Past parodied musicians include Stevie Wonder, Michael Jackson, Billy Joel, The Beatles, Aerosmith, Disney, and Queen.</p><br>
<h3>ComFest</h3><br>
<p>In 1999, Mask and Wig established an annual Intercollegiate Comedy Festival to showcase the talent of the nation&#39;s best collegiate sketch comedy troupes. The mission of the festival is not just to put on a hilarious show that cultivates new talent, but also to honor and showcase a well-known comedian. Each host does a stand-up routine for the audience and participates in sketches with Mask and Wig. Past college sketch troupes include:</p><br>
<p>Princeton Triangle Club</p><br>
<p>University of Maryland Sketchup</p><br>
<p>Yale Fifth Humour</p><br>
<p>Boston College Hello Shovelhead</p><br>
<p>Cornell University Humor Us! Sketch Comedy</p><br>
<p>Tufts University&#39;s Major: Undecided Sketch Comedy</p><br>
<h3>Annual Production "Spring Show"</h3><br>
<p>The Annual Production, colloquially known as the "Spring Show", is the theatrical centerpiece of Mask and Wig. Performed at The Mask and Wig Clubhouse, the production is an original show that runs from late January to early April. While the format of the Spring Show has evolved over the years, the show currently runs as a full "book" musical comedy, complete with singing and tap dancing.</p><br>
<p>Unlike the Fall Show, the Annual Production is professionally composed, directed, and choreographed by some of the best talents in the industry. The script, however, is written by the Club&#39;s cast.</p><br>
<h3>Tour</h3><br>
<p>During spring break the troupe takes their show around the country as they road trip across the United States, usually performing in areas with a high Penn alumni concentration. The trip usually includes about four to six stops. In recent years the tour has taken Wig to cities like London, Los Angeles, New York City, San Francisco, Las Vegas, Chicago, and Toronto.</p><br>
<p>The tour is yet another one of the groups many traditions. In Mask and Wigs “heyday,” the group had its own train car that it would use to do a similar tour around the nation.</p><br>
<h3>Spring Fling</h3><br>
<p>The Mask and Wig Band traditionally headlines the last day of Spring Fling performances, which was historically a Saturday, at the stage in the Lower Quad. In 2018, the festival was moved to Penn Park along with the Mask and Wig performance. They generally perform an hour-long set of covers of popular music. Members of the cast generally sing with the band, along with female vocalists from other Penn performing arts groups.</p><br>
<h2>The Clubhouse</h2><br>
<h3>Clubhouse art</h3><br>
<p>Working in his studio just a few blocks away at Thirteenth and Walnut Streets, Maxfield Parrish received one of his first commissions in 1894 from Mask and Wig. This first job came as he was finishing his studies at the Pennsylvania Academy; it was for decoration of the stage proscenium and ticket window, illustration of a number of caricatures on the wall of the Grille Room, and most notably the Old King Cole mural. This was the start of his professional career; shortly after seeing the mural, the editor of “Harper&#39;s” Magazine invited Parrish to do some of their covers for which he became famous. He would continue working for the Club to finish a total of 35 caricatures and illustrate the earliest program covers.</p><br>
<p>Wilson Eyre was older and more established than Parrish when he began working on the Clubhouse, and was good friends with Parrishs father, Stephen. Eyre was the architect in charge of renovating the Clubs new home and transforming it from a stable into a “Bavarian” themed Clubhouse. His first remodel in 1894 transformed the space from the stable by adding an entry hall with stairs, designing and decorating the Grille Room, and turning the second floor into a theater. Eyre designed most of the furniture in the Grille Room; three of the original tables still exist. Eyre also oversaw the second major change. The building was enlarged in 1903 by adding 10 feet to the front creating the façade that still exists there today. Eyres original drawing of the front design, created in 1902, is shown to the right. Eyres design has endured for over a century with few changes aside from the ongoing addition of paneling for caricatures in the Grille Room and Theater.</p><br>
<h3>Clubhouse renovations</h3><br>
<p>Immediately following the close of the 2007 Spring show, the clubhouse underwent an extensive renovation. In addition to bringing the building up to modern code, the club also installed an elevator and central air conditioning unit. On the morning of March 15, 2008, a fire broke out in the attic of the clubhouse, setting back the completion date indefinitely. The club had a contingency plan in case of such an emergency and was able to put on their show. "West Wing Story" played for two weekends in April 2008 at the Prince Music Theater in downtown Philadelphia, marking the first annual production to be performed at a venue other than the clubhouse since 1960. With renovations still behind schedule in 2009, the annual production "Oh, the Humanities!" was also performed at the Prince Music Theater for three weekends, selling a record number of tickets due to the large theater capacity. The clubhouse renovation was completed in the fall of 2009, allowing the club to once again return to its own stage for the 2010 Annual Production, "A Cheshire Catastrophe".</p><br>
<p>Going-to-the-Sun Road is a scenic mountain road in the Rocky Mountains of the western United States, in Glacier National Park in Montana. The Sun Road, as it is sometimes abbreviated in National Park Service documents, is the only road that traverses the park, crossing the Continental Divide through Logan Pass at an elevation of 6,646 feet , which is the highest point on the road. Prior to the construction of the road, visitors would need to spend several days traveling through the central part of the park, an area which can now be traversed within a few hours, excluding any stops for sightseeing or construction.</p><br>
<p>The road is the first to have been registered in all of the following categories: National Historic Place, National Historic Landmark The road is approximately 50 miles (80 km) long and spans the width of the park between the east and west entrance stations. The National Historic Landmark Nomination records a slightly shorter distance of 48.7 miles which is measured from the first main intersection just outside the park&#39;s west entrance to Divide Creek in St. Mary, Montana on the east side of the park.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The road is named after Going-to-the-Sun Mountain which dominates the eastbound view beyond Logan Pass. One Native American legend concerns the deity Sour Spirit who came down from the sun to teach the Blackfeet the basics of hunting. While returning to the sun, an image of Sour Spirit was placed on the mountain as an inspiration for the Blackfeet. Another story has suggested that a late-19th-century Euro-American explorer provided the mountain&#39;s name and the legend.</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Going-to-the-Sun Road, also known as Glacier Route 1 Road, is notable as one of the first National Park Service projects specifically intended to accommodate the automobile-borne tourist. The road was first conceived by superintendent George Goodwin in 1917, who became the chief engineer of the Park Service the following year. As chief engineer, the new road became Goodwin&#39;s primary project, and construction began in 1921.</p><br>
<p>As the project proceeded, Goodwin lost influence with National Park Service director Stephen Mather, who favored landscape architect Thomas Chalmers Vints alternative routing of the upper portion of the road along the Garden Wall escarpment. Vints alignment reduced both switchbacks and the roads visual impact, at increased cost. With Goodwins resignation, Vint&#39;s proposal became the preferred alignment. The entire project was finally opened from end to end in 1933, at a cost of $2.5 million.</p><br>
<p>The western terminus of the road is at USA Route 2 in West Glacier, Montana. The eastern terminus is at USA Route 89 in St. Mary.</p><br>
<p>The two-lane Going-to-the-Sun Road is quite narrow and winding, with hairpin turns, especially west of Logan Pass. Consequently, vehicle lengths over the highest portions of the roadway are limited to no longer than 21 ft and no wider than 8 ft between Avalanche Creek and Rising Sun picnic areas which are located many miles below Logan Pass, on the west and east sides of the pass, respectively. Vehicles over 10 ft in height may not have sufficient clearance due to rock overhangs when driving west between Logan Pass and the hairpin turn called the Loop. The speed limits are 45 mph in the lower elevations and 25 mph in the steeper and winding alpine sections.</p><br>
<h2>Repairs</h2><br>
<p>The road is one of the most difficult roads in North America to snowplow in the spring. Up to 80 ft of snow can lie on top of Logan Pass, and more just east of the pass where the deepest snowfield has long been referred to as the Big Drift. The road takes about ten weeks to plow, even with equipment that can move 4,000 tons of snow in an hour. The snowplow crew can clear as little as 500 ft of the road per day. On the east side of the Continental Divide, there are few guardrails due to heavy snows and the resultant late-winter avalanches that have destroyed protective barriers. The road is generally open from early June to mid October, with its latest opening on July 13, 2022, marking the record for the latest opening since the inaugural date of July 15, 1933.</p><br>
<p>A restoration project by the National Park Service and the Federal Highway Administration has been repairing road damage from many avalanches and rock slides over the years. The repairs, which started in the 1980s and continue to the present day when weather permits, include fixing retaining walls, replacing the original pavement with reinforced concrete, and work on tunnels, bridges, culverts and overlooks.</p><br>
<h2>Buses</h2><br>
<p>A fleet of vintage 1930s red buses, modernized in 2001 and called Red Jammers, or simply "Reds", continue the tradition of offering guided tours along the road. The original bus drivers became affectionately known as "Gear Jammers" or simply "Jammers" since they had to jam the manual gearbox into low to safely negotiate the steepest road sections. Modern-style shuttle buses for shorter trips and Blackfeet tour buses operate on the road as well.</p><br>
<p>The Cloyne Court Hotel, often referred to simply as Cloyne, is a historical landmark in Berkeley, California and currently one of the houses of the Berkeley Student Cooperative , a student housing cooperative. It is located at the north side of the University of California, Berkeley campus at 2600 Ridge Road, near Soda Hall and Jacobs Hall, and is the next door neighbor of the Goldman School of Public Policy.</p><br>
<p>The building is owned by the Regents of the University of California.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Cloyne Court was named after Cloyne, the village in Ireland where George Berkeley was bishop.</p><br>
<p>Cloyne was built in 1904 for $80,000 by the University Land and Improvement Company, which included several University professors, University benefactresses Phoebe Apperson Hearst and Jane K. Sather, future Regent James K. Moffit, Dr. Louis Lisser, John L. Howard, Warren Olney, Dr. Kasper Pishel, Louis Titus, John Galen Howard, the architect of the building and James M. Pierce, the later owner of the hotel. The building, described as a "high-class, modern apartment house," originally contained 32 suites, each with bath, that were not connected by common hallways, but rather were paired onto private stairways to the first floor public areas. Each section was separated by heavy brick firewalls with automatic fireproof doors and each suite was wired for telephone. In 1911, the music room (today called lib-ed room) was added to the building, directly opposite the main entrance, which hosted numerous lectures and music recitals.</p><br>
<p>The building was one of a rare few to survive the devastating 1923 Berkeley fire, remarkable also because the building is made of redwood and all of the buildings had (and still have) wood shake siding and roofs.</p><br>
<p>Pierce and his family purchased the hotel from the investors and managed it from its opening in 1904 until 1914. The family continued operating the hotel until it was sold in 1946.</p><br>
<p>The services and hospitality at Cloyne Court were always highly complimented by the many visitors who had the pleasure of staying at the hotel. Registered compliments in the hotel guest book include:</p><br>
<p>Cloyne Court - Silence and peace in an insane world. - Ernest Bloch, 1944</p><br>
<p>Cloyne Court, a haven and a place where the gentle art of hospitality is made manifest to the unknown stranger as well as to the great ones of our day. - Mary Lambert, 1942</p><br>
<p>Giving people a happy home is a divine service. - Benjamin Ide Wheeler, 1923</p><br>
<p>I came a stranger, stayed a guest and departed a friend. - unknown</p><br>
<p>Cloyne Court was sold by the Pierce family in 1946 to the University Students&#39; Cooperative Association (today BSC) for $125,000. That year, 15 men occupied the new co-op house alongside the previous residents, whom the USCA had agreed to not displace but rather to allow to continue to live in the residence. Cloyne originally housed all men who often held dances and dined with the women of nearby Stebbins Hall and Hoyt Hall, both all-female co-ops at the time. In 1972, Cloyne Court became a co-ed house.</p><br>
<p>In 1970, the USCA was forced to sell the property to the Regents of the University of California, upon the threat of an eminent domain acquisition by the University, in exchange for a peppercorn lease, most recently renewed in July 2005.</p><br>
<p>The building was named a City of Berkeley Landmark in 1982,</p><br>
<p>On December 21, 2008, Cloyne Court was closed temporarily for earthquake renovations. It reopened at the beginning of the Fall 2009 semester.</p><br>
<p>Cloyne&#39;s reputation for its party and rules-free culture became a problem for the entire organization when in 2010 John Gibson, then a 21-year-old resident, suffered extensive brain damage and lapsed into a coma, reportedly as a result of a cocaine overdose, in his room. A lawsuit followed his hospitalization, his family claiming his fellow housemates failed to call 911 in time to assist him. The BSC settled with his family with the agreement that Cloyne would dramatically change. From Fall 2014, Cloyne became the substance-free house of the BSC system. Prior members were forced to leave, but one member was allowed to stay after appeal.</p><br>
<h2>Co-op</h2><br>
<p>Cloyne is the largest non-apartment style property in the BSC, the largest housing co-op organization in North America. Cloyne houses 140 UC Berkeley students (119 during summer), mostly undergraduates. Because it is owned by, and leased on University of California land, only UC students are eligible as residents.</p><br>
<p>Despite its size the house is student-run and student-governed. Members contribute 5 hours of workshift per week each for various tasks needed for the operation of the house: cooking, cleaning, house maintenance, gardening, etc. Since July 2005, a facility manager employed by the students and the BSC lives on the premises to help with day-to-day operations of the house. Every weekday and on Sundays members cook a communal dinner, and on Saturdays there is a communal brunch. Houses council, houses governing body where all members democratically make decisions pertaining the house, meets every Sunday.</p><br>
<p>As the academic theme house of the BSC system, Cloyne has an increased number of studious spaces and lectures, including study rooms, a library, a makerspace/hackerspace (a rare case where members can both hack and live in the same building), and many lectures given by guest lecturers and members themselves. A common practice is also informal visits of UC Berkeley professors at communal dinners, allowing members to get to know them through a less formal setting. An example of a UC Berkeley faculty member visiting Cloyne is popular EECS professor John DeNero, who regularly presented about the joys of data for many semesters.</p><br>
<p>The house is known for its murals covering many of its internal walls. Murals have been made through years by members residing in the house.</p><br>
<h3>Music scene</h3><br>
<p>Cloyne has played a notable role in the Bay Area music scene. The bands No Doubt, Elliott Smith, Green Day, Operation Ivy, The Offspring, Rancid, Primus, 24-7 Spyz, Save Ferris, Skankin&#39; Pickle, The Mr. T Experience, Two Gallants, Blüchunks and Rilo Kiley played at Cloyne before becoming well known. The house also hosted several lesser-known bands during its many events, presenting as many as a dozen bands in a single evening, commonly using two separate stages, though sometimes as many as four: the dining room, the lib-ed room, the basement, and the courtyard.</p><br>
<p>Rosie the Riveter World War II Home Front National Historical Park is a United States national historical park located in Richmond, California, near San Francisco. The park preserves and interprets the legacy of the United States home front during World War II, including the Kaiser Richmond Shipyards, the Victory ship SS Red Oak Victory, a tank factory, housing developments and other facilities built to support America&#39;s entry into World War II. In particular, the role of women and African-Americans in war industries is explored and honored.</p><br>
<p>The park is a partnership park, meaning that no land or buildings are actually owned by the National Park Service, which only administers the park. The historical park was established in 2000, and bus tours began in 2007.</p><br>
<h2>Park attractions</h2><br>
<p>A feasibility study was authorized under P.L. 105-355 (Sec. 505), sponsored by Rep. George Miller, to determine if the proposed park was suitable to be designated as a National Park Service affiliated site. The subsequent feasibility study concluded "the collection of historic structures and sites in Richmond is nationally significant" and recommended that a National Historic Park be established, citing multiple historic structures that remained intact including Atchison Village, the Maritime and Ruth C. Powers child development centers, Kaiser Permanente Hospital, Richmond Fire Station No. 67A, Richmond Shipyard #3, Ford Assembly Building, and Oil House. Subsequently, P.L. 106-352 established the Historical Park, granting the United States Secretary of the Interior power to establish cooperative agreements with the owners of the listed historic structures and nearby local parks, including the Shimada Peace Memorial Park, Westshore Park, Sheridan Observation Point Park, San Francisco Bay Trail, and Vincent Park.</p><br>
<p>The parks visitor center is in the Oil House, a small auxiliary building next to the restored Ford Assembly Building, with a number of permanent and temporary exhibits about the history of Richmonds wartime industries and workers. A film also illustrates the home-front battle. Rangers are available to answer questions, and also lead guided tours and conduct other interpretive programs.</p><br>
<p>A self-guided auto tour with optional walking tour is available for downloading. In the summer of 2007, preliminary bus tours began with a new guideless model, which instead filled half of the bus with residents who spoke of their experiences from the time to put what are otherwise everyday streets for residents into a greater historical perspective.</p><br>
<p>The Rosie the Riveter Memorial in Marina Bay Park is open year-round, dawn to dusk, as are the other Richmond city parks within the National Park&#39;s boundaries.</p><br>
<h3>Rosie Memorial</h3><br>
<p>The parks creation was spurred by the construction of a Rosie the Riveter memorial in Marina Bay Park along the citys shoreline, formerly Kaiser Richmond Shipyard #2. The memorial was intended to honor the "Rosies", women who made up much of the workforce at the shipyards, and started in 1997, three years prior to the creation of the national park. The effort behind the memorial was initiated by then-Councilwoman Donna Powers. It grew under Project Director Donna Graves to become the first national tribute to home front American women. A competition was held, selecting the final design in November 1998.</p><br>
<p>The four Richmond shipyards, with their combined 27 shipways, produced 747 ships, more than any other shipyard complex in the country. Richmond was home to the largest shipyard and 55 other war industries, overwhelming the available housing stock, roads, schools, businesses and community services.</p><br>
<p>The memorial was designed by landscape architect Cheryl Barton and visual artist Susan Schwartzenberg and dedicated on October 14, 2000, in a ceremony hosted by Donna Powers and attended by more than 100 "Rosies". It is the length of the keel of a Liberty ship, representing the skeletal form of a ship under construction. A simple metal pier serves as the stern at the south end, on the waters edge, proceeding north through a cylindrical framework as the smoke stack, and the bow as the main monument, made of prefabricated parts similar to those assembled by the shipyard workers. At the monument, there are 39 photographs, news clippings, and memorabilia. A timeline of World War II is presented in 25 panels laid along the Keel Walk, a walkway running the length of the memorial. Interpretive signs and exhibits within the structures present information on womens history, labor history, and the home front.</p><br>
<h3>Ford Richmond Plant</h3><br>
<p>The Ford Motor Company Assembly Plant was the largest assembly plant to be built on the West Coast. One of only three tank depots in the entire country, approximately 49,000 jeeps were assembled and 91,000 other military vehicles were processed here. Ford employed thousands of workers at the site during World War II, many of them women who were entering the work force for the first time. "Rosie the Riveter" was a period song representing these women.</p><br>
<p>In mobilizing the wartime production effort to its full potential, Federal military authorities and private industry began to work closely together on a scale never seen before in American history. This laid the groundwork for what became known as the "military-industrial complex" during the Cold War years.</p><br>
<p>Noted architect Albert Kahn is credited with the design of the Ford plant in Richmond. After World War II, Ford moved its Northern California factory to Milpitas, which was known as the San Jose Assembly Plant; the building and site are now the Great Mall of the Bay Area.</p><br>
<p>The plant building has been restored and now houses a variety of private businesses along with the NPS visitor center.</p><br>
<h3>Richmond Shipyards</h3><br>
<p>The four Richmond Shipyards were part of the Kaiser Shipyards; construction started in early 1941 and the shipyards were completed by 1942. In 1997, the Richmond City Council began the effort to build the Rosie Memorial and passed Resolution, authorizing the submittal of Shipyard No. 3 for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places and as a California Historic Landmark. The park&#39;s Rosie memorial is located on the former grounds of Shipyard No.2. Shipyard No.3 was listed on the NRHP in April 2000.</p><br>
<p>Both Liberty and Victory ships were constructed here. These ships were completed in two-thirds the amount of time and at a quarter of the cost of the average of all other shipyards. The SS Robert E. Peary was assembled in less than five days as a part of a special competition among shipyards; but by 1944 it was only taking the astonishingly brief time of a little over two weeks to assemble a Liberty ship by standard methods.</p><br>
<h3>SS Red Oak Victory</h3><br>
<p>The SS Red Oak Victory is a Victory ship preserved as a museum ship. It was one of 414 Victories built during World War II (constructed at the Richmond Shipyards), but one of only a few of these ships to be transferred from the Merchant Marine to the USA Navy. The vessel issued cargo and munitions to various ships in the fleet throughout 1945. During a hazardous tour of duty in the Pacific, SS Red Oak Victory handled many tons of ammunition, supplying the fleet without a single casualty.</p><br>
<h3>Atchison Village Housing Project</h3><br>
<p>The huge influx of workers coming to live in cities like Richmond, caused intense strain on city infrastructure. One of these strains was the severe lack of housing. Workers arriving in these rapidly expanding urban centers were forced to find what they could. They slept in all night movie houses, shared "hot beds" (i.e. when one person got in bed, it was still hot from the last person getting out), or just camped out.</p><br>
<p>Atchison Village Housing Project is an example of the local-Federal collaboration that provided much needed housing and domestic support for defense workers and their families. The modest, wood-frame buildings clearly reflect the constraints (time, money and materials) placed on publicly funded housing construction during the period. Just prior to and during the war, the Lanham Act of 1940 provided $150 million to the Works Progress Administration, which built approximately 625,000 units of housing in conjunction with local authorities nationwide. These were highly sought after and company managers were the most likely to be able to procure housing in Atchison Village.</p><br>
<p>Due to racial discrimination, minorities fared very poorly in gaining housing. They often lived in shacks, in the crates that brought the raw materials to the city, in trailers, or in automobiles. They and other lower income earning workers were lucky when they were able to move to barrack-like dormitories constructed for the mass of World War II workers.</p><br>
<p>The Richmond Housing Authority was selected to be the first authority in the country to manage a defense project. Atchison Village represents one of 20 public housing projects built in Richmond before and during World War II. Constructed in 1941 as Richmond&#39;s first public defense housing project, it is the only project funded by the Lanham Act that still exists in Richmond, and one of the few in the nation not destroyed after the war.</p><br>
<p>Today, Atchison Village is a collection of privately owned houses managed by a cooperative of the homeowners. While most of the dormitories and other low income housing of World War II are gone, Atchison Village, built as permanent housing, remains.</p><br>
<h3>Kaiser Richmond Field Hospital</h3><br>
<p>Prior to the invasion of Europe in June 1944, more Americans were dying in Home Front accidents than on World War II battlefields. Henry J. Kaiser, founder of the Richmond Shipyards, recognized that only a healthy work force could meet his deadlines and construction needs. He institutionalized a revolutionary idea, pre-paid medical care for workers, which soon expanded beyond workers. For many workers, this was the first time they had seen a doctor.</p><br>
<p>The Kaiser Richmond Field Hospital for the Richmond Shipyards was financed by the USA Maritime Commission, and opened on August 10, 1942.</p><br>
<p>By August 1944, 92.2 percent of all Richmond shipyard employees had joined the plan, the first voluntary group plan in the country to feature group medical practice, prepayment and substantial medical facilities on such a large scale. By 1990, Kaiser Permanente was still the country&#39;s largest nonprofit HMO.</p><br>
<p>In part due to wartime materials rationing, the Field Hospital is a single-story wood-frame structure designed in a simple modernist mode. The Field Hospital operated as a Kaiser Permanente hospital until closing in 1995, after a new hospital was built downtown.</p><br>
<h3>Maritime and Ruth Powers Child Development Centers</h3><br>
<p>The Maritime and Ruth Powers Child Development Centers were two of approximately 35 nursery school units of varying sizes established in the Richmond area during World War II in order to provide child care for women working in the Kaiser shipyards. The Maritime center was funded and constructed by the Maritime Commission as part of a larger development that also included housing, an elementary school and a fire station. The temporary housing was demolished after the war but a larger permanent housing complex remains as do the other buildings.</p><br>
<p>The Maritime Child Development Center, a wood frame, modernist style building operated by the Richmond School District, incorporated progressive educational programming, and was staffed with nutritionists, psychiatrists and certified teachers. It had a capacity of 180 children per day. At its peak, with 24,500 women on the Kaiser payroll, Richmond&#39;s citywide child care program maintained a total daily attendance of 1,400 children. Unlike the federally funded WPA day care facilities implemented during the New Deal, the World War II centers were not intended for use by the destitute, but for working mothers.</p><br>
<p>The Kaiser-sponsored Child Care Centers, particularly those at Kaiser&#39;s industrial sites in Vanport, Oregon, and Vancouver, Washington, gained a reputation for innovative and high quality child care. The center is still in operation today.</p><br>
<h3>Lucretia Edwards Shoreline Park</h3><br>
<p>Lucretia Edwards Shoreline Park, named in honor of local community activist Lucretia W. Edwards, honors the wartime contributions made by the Bay Area Shipyards during World War II.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the local Richmond Shipyards, shipworker&#39;s bootprints with plaques set in the sidewalks and long low seating walls point visitors to the other Bay Area shipyards.</p><br>
<p>The following inscriptions are engraved into the concrete walls:</p><br>
<p>Bethlehem San Francisco – The only privately owned shipyard in the nation to operate a submarine repair base, this 16th Street yard overhauled 31 subs in two years.</p><br>
<p>Moore Dry Dock handled the difficult jobs of production, repair and conversion that slowed overall output in other yards.</p><br>
<p>Hunters Point Naval Dry Dock – Hunters Point repaired 600 fighting and support ships.</p><br>
<p>Mare Island Naval Shipyard – Mare Island built more than 400 vessels. Mare Island Naval Shipyard set a shipbuilding record for a destroyer that was never broken completing the USS Ward in just 17 days.</p><br>
<p>Marinship – The 75,000 Americans who poured into Marinship during the war years build 93 ships.</p><br>
<h3>Nystrom Elementary School</h3><br>
<p>The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 added Nystrom Elementary School of the West Contra Costa Unified School District to the park. The building was built to accommodate families who moved to Richmond to work at the Kaiser Shipyards.</p><br>
<p>The Vermont State House, located in Montpelier, is the state capitol of the USA state of Vermont. It is the seat of the Vermont General Assembly. The current Greek Revival structure is the third building on the same site to be used as the State House. Designed by Thomas Silloway in 1857 and 1858, it was occupied in 1859.</p><br>
<p>A careful restoration of the Vermont State House began in the early 1980s led by curator David Schütz and the Friends of the Vermont State House, a citizens&#39; advisory committee. The general style of the building is Neoclassical and Greek Revival and is furnished in American Empire, Renaissance Revival, and Rococo Revival styles. Some rooms have been restored to represent latter-19th-century styles including the "Aesthetic Movement" style.</p><br>
<p>Since 1994, Buildings and General Services Architect Tricia Harper has been responsible for design and construction for the restoration and renovation project of the building and its grounds.</p><br>
<p>The Vermont State House is located on State Street on the western edge of downtown Montpelier, a block north of the Winooski River. Set against a wooded hillside (which was open pasture land earlier during much of its history), the building and its distinctive gold leaf dome are easily visible while approaching Montpelier, the smallest city to serve as capital of a USA state.</p><br>
<h2>History and architecture</h2><br>
<h3>Exterior facade and dome</h3><br>
<p>The current structure was designed by architect Thomas Silloway (1828–1910) amplifying the design of an earlier structure designed by Ammi B. Young, (1798–1874) later supervising architect of the USA Treasury. The first State House built in 1808 by Sylvanus Baldwin was replaced by the current Vermont Supreme Court Building completed in 1918.</p><br>
<p>The prior edifice, known as the "Second State House", was constructed on the same site between 1833 and 1838. Youngs structure was of a more reserved Greek Revival design based upon the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens. Gray Barre granite is used for the two-story cruciform design with a Doric portico and a low saucer dome echoing William Thorntons earliest design for the United States Capitol. Young&#39;s structure was almost entirely destroyed by a fire in January 1857. Silloway was able to salvage the Doric portico, as well as portions of the granite walls. Silloway added an additional bay of windows on each side of the central portico and increased the height of the dome (copper on a wood substructure) to its current level. This may have been done to imitate the increased height of the new Capitol dome in Washington designed by Thomas U. Walter which was being constructed during the same time.</p><br>
<p>The dome and roofs were originally painted a dark terracotta red to suggest Tuscan tile. The dome was not gilded until the early 20th century, when many states did so as a part of the Colonial Revival style.</p><br>
<h4>Ceres</h4><br>
<p>The dome is topped by a statue named Agriculture, a representation of Ceres, an ancient Roman goddess of agriculture. The original statue was carved by Vermont artist Larkin Goldsmith Mead, who also carved the large bust of Lincoln in the Hall of Inscriptions on the State Houses ground floor. This statue was installed in 1858. When the first statue rotted out a replacement based on Meads original was carved in 1938 by then 87-year-old Dwight Dwinell, Sergeant-at-Arms (in Vermont this official position is similar in nature to the White House Chief Usher). In April 2018 the second statue was removed. The current statue was carved by Chris Miller out of a laminated block of mahogany and was based on a one-quarter scale model created by Jerry Williams which was also based on the original 1858 statue.</p><br>
<p>The Doric portico, the main ceremonial entrance, houses a granite statue of Ethan Allen. Ethan Allen was a founder of Vermont and commander of the Green Mountain Boys, an early Vermont military infantry active during the Vermont Republic (1777–1791). The statue was carved by Aristide Piccini in 1941, to replace the original marble version carved by Larkin Goldsmith Mead in 1858. The architect Stanford White (1853–1906) considered Silloway&#39;s Vermont State House to be the finest example of the Greek Revival style in the United States.</p><br>
<h3>Interiors, furnishings, and decorative arts</h3><br>
<p>The State House contains two primary floors accessible by a pair of circular stairways opening into the ground-floor Cross Hall. An elevator is also available. The Entrance Hall is of the Greek Ionic order and flanked by portraits of Presidents Calvin Coolidge and Chester A. Arthur, both native to Vermont. The tall double front doors were painted and then coated with a metallic powder to appear as bronze in 1859. The Entrance Hall contains a portrait of Montpelier native Admiral George Dewey on the bridge of his flagship during the Battle of Manila Bay. The Vermont State House does not have a rotunda, the dome being located almost directly above the ceiling of Representatives Hall on the second floor. The principal public room is the Hall of Inscriptions, a Doric pilastered corridor featuring eight monumental marble tablets incised with quotations about the distinct nature of Vermonts culture and heritage. The tablets quote the Vermont Constitution, Ethan Allen, Calvin Coolidge, George Aiken, Warren Austin, and Dorothy Canfield Fisher among others. Each tablet features fourteen gilded stars, representing Vermonts fourteen counties, the state&#39;s fourteen years as an independent republic, and being the fourteenth state to join the federal Union. The four corners of each tablet feature a sheath of grain, a detail found in the Great Seal of Vermont, designed by Ira Allen.</p><br>
<p>The ceremonial office of the Governor of Vermont, used during legislative sessions for meetings and bill-signings, is located in the second-floor west wing of the building. The Executive Chamber has been restored to its 1859 appearance with pediment hooded windows supported by Italianate-style brackets, and gilded Rococo Revival drapery cornices. A Wilton style carpet colored crimson, azure blue and gold was rewoven as part of the restoration. The Vermont Governor&#39;s working office and private apartments are located nearby at The Pavilion, built in Second Empire style and located just east of the Vermont Supreme Court. Portraits of Vermont governors (including Howard Dean, who is shown in an idiosyncratic pose in a canoe amid a natural setting) are displayed through the first and second floors of the State House, the corridors of which are a sort of state portrait gallery, commemorating famous Vermonters.</p><br>
<p>The two chambers of the Vermont General Assembly are on the second floor. While both chambers have overhead visitors galleries accessible on a third-floor mezzanine, visitors are welcome to quietly enter and sit in the main floor of the chambers. Contrary to the tradition of decorating the upper house in red and the lower house in green, established by the House of Lords and House of Commons in the United Kingdom, Vermont reserves the state colors of green and gold for its upper house, the Vermont Senate. Red and gold is used for the Vermont House of Representatives which meets in Representatives Hall. A large plaster ceiling medallion in the center of the chamber in the form of a lotus with a center rosette of acanthus leaves hold a two-tiered electrified gasolier manufactured in Philadelphia by Cornelius and Baker. Each petal of the rosette weighs approximately 500 pounds. Brilliant axminster carpets have been recreated for both chambers based on old stereoscope views and small scraps found in an attic. On either side of the rostrum in Representatives Hall, are a series of connected elliptical-backed seats designed to fill the north wall of the chamber. The seats are upholstered and tufted in crimson and are used to seat members of the Vermont Senate during joint sessions of the General Assembly. The seats also accommodate the justices of the States supreme court for the Governor&#39;s State of the State address and the inauguration of governors. Citizens frequently occupy these seats when the House is in separate session, or for large public hearings.</p><br>
<p>The second floor of the west wing includes the Cedar Creek Room, a large reception room featuring a mural painted by Julian Scott in 1874. The mural nearly fills the south wall and depicts the Battle of Cedar Creek during the American Civil War. The painting highlights the contributions of Vermont troops in the battle. The room is illuminated by two stained glass skylights in the deeply coffered ceiling dating to 1859 when the room housed the State Library. At some time the skylight was broken, and the opening closed. In 1970, while doing renovation work, workers discovered the broken pieces neatly stacked in the attic above the room. The pieces were reassembled, conserved, and reinstalled during the mid-1980s. One window (shown at left) depicts the obverse of the coat of arms of Vermont, which is a more painterly armorial representation of the Great Seal of Vermont (reserved solely for embossing documents), the arms are topped by the head of a buck white-tailed deer and circled by branches of Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobus). Pine badges were worn as an expression of Vermont identity by citizens while the state was a republic, and again during the American Civil War by Vermonts military regiments. The other skylight features the rarely seen reverse of the state coat of arms, a female personification of the state referred to as "Vermontannia." The wall stencils in the Cedar Creek Room are the original patterns, recreated based upon old photographs, and the colors were matched by paint analysis. It is seated among sheaths of corn and wheat, representing Vermonts agricultural history. This room is restored to its 1888 appearance when the room was converted from the State Library to use as a governor&#39;s reception room. The walls, and 20-foot ceilings are polychrome painted in a complex palette of tertiary colors: burnished copper, russet, salmon, and a deep blue-green with overlays of metallic stencilling. The style is largely of the Aesthetic Movement.</p><br>
<p>Most of the furnishings in the building date to the 1859 reconstruction of the State House, including the 30 black walnut chairs in the Vermont Senate chamber, still used for the same purpose today. Several American Empire-style sofas, a set of klismos chairs, carved black walnut Renaissance Revival-style chairs for the Senate President and House Speaker, and suites of Rococo Revival settées and chairs also date to the completion of Silloways reconstruction. The majority of the lighting fixtures in the building are original, restored and electrified ormolu gas chandeliers and wall sconces manufactured in Philadelphia by Cornelius and Baker during the 1850s. The large two-tiered, 26-light chandelier in Representatives Hall features sculptures of mythological figures, including a copy of Vermont sculptor Hiram Powers The Greek Slave, which became an abolitionist icon. Only the large portrait of George Washington, painted by George Gassner after Gilbert Stuart, which hangs above the speaker&#39;s chair in Representatives Hall, survived the fire of 1857.</p><br>
<h2>Use of the Vermont State House</h2><br>
<p>Vermonts reputation for popular government is represented by the State Houses nickname "the People&#39;s House." While its primary use is as the house of the legislative branch of Vermont government, it has from its beginnings also functioned as a living museum and state cultural facility.</p><br>
<p>The building is open to visitors with remarkably few restrictions whether the legislature is in session or not. The large Representatives Hall is used for evening concerts named "Farmers Nights" during winter months. During warmer weather, the public lawn on the south side is used for concerts by the Vermont Symphony Orchestra, municipal bands from around the state, marching regimental bagpipe tattoos, modern dance concerts, as well as to provide space for local residents to sit, eat, and play sports. Quilts, ceramics, photography and paintings by citizens periodically hang in the building&#39;s corridors, committee and caucus rooms, and dining room.</p><br>
<p>In recent years, each February 14 the columns of the portico and lawn are bedecked with red paper hearts by the so-called Valentine Phantom. Additionally, the public lawn and steps of the portico serve as a well-used platform for peaceful demonstrations, press conferences by various official and non-official groups, and for formally welcoming official visitors to the State of Vermont.</p><br>
<p>The House&#39;s backup generator in the basement was replaced by a 250 kWh battery in 2020, and supplies peak power and grid services to the public grid.</p><br>
<p>On June 12, 2013, Google added the Vermont State House to their Street View imagery.</p><br>
<p>The first Vermont State House (1808 wood engraving).jpgThe first Vermont State House, built in 1808 was designed by Sylvanus Baldwin</p><br>
<p>ABY2ndVSH.jpgCirca 1856 daguerreotype of the second state house showing Ammi B. Young&#39;s low "saucer" dome</p><br>
<p>Statehouseflag.JPGThomas Silloways dome is taller than Ammi B. Youngs low saucer dome. Ionic columns support the dome which was originally painted red to resemble Tuscan terracotta tile.</p><br>
<p>VSHc1870.jpgCirca 1870 stereograph view of the third state house showing Thomas Silloway&#39;s taller drum supported dome</p><br>
<p>The Shrine of the Grotto of the Redemption is a religious shrine in West Bend, Iowa, in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Sioux City. A conglomeration of nine grottos depicting scenes in the life of Jesus, it contains a large collection of minerals and petrifications and is believed to be the largest grotto in the world.</p><br>
<p>It is also "considered to be the world&#39;s most complete man-made collection of minerals, fossils, shells, and petrifications in one place." The estimated value of the rocks and minerals which make up the Grotto is over $4,308,000. Over 100,000 people visit each year.</p><br>
<p>It includes a museum with precious and semiprecious stones from throughout the world, and photos and artifacts about the construction of the shrine.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Father Paul Dobberstein was a German immigrant ordained in 1897. He became critically ill with pneumonia and promised to build a shrine to the Virgin Mary if she interceded for him. After his recovery, he began stockpiling rocks and precious stones. Construction of the Grotto began in 1912 and continued year round for 42 years.</p><br>
<p>Father Dobberstein used the knowledge and skills gained during construction of his first grotto honoring Our Lady of Lourdes while training at St. Francis Seminary in St. Francis, Wisconsin. His method was to set fancy rocks and gems into concrete. In 1946, Father Louis Greving began helping Dobberstein with the construction. The Grotto covered an area the size of a city block when Dobberstein died in 1954. Matt Szerensce helped contribute the work until his retirement in 1959. The Grotto was maintained by Deacon Gerald Streit from 1994 until his retirement in the early 2000s.</p><br>
<p>Father Dobberstein&#39;s works inspired Mathias Wernerus (who also attended St. Francis Seminary) to build the Dickeyville Grotto in Dickeyville, Wisconsin, in 1930, starting the grotto-building movement in America.</p><br>
<p>In August 1, 2015, the Grotto was raised to the status of a diocesan shrine by R. Walker Nickless, Bishop of Sioux City, becoming the diocese&#39;s first designated religious shrine.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The Grotto of the Redemption is featured in the David Lynch film The Straight Story.</p><br>
<p>Grotto of the Redemption 001.jpgEntrance sign</p><br>
<p>Grotto Arcade.jpgView of Lower Arcade: Small Stations of the Cross</p><br>
<p>Grotto of the Redemption Station 13.jpgStation 13</p><br>
<p>The Grotto of the Redemption Pic1.jpg</p><br>
<p>Rittenhouse Square is a public park in Center City Philadelphia, Pennsylvania that is the center of the eponymous Rittenhouse neighborhood. The square is one of the five original open-space parks planned by William Penn and his surveyor Thomas Holme during the late 17th century.</p><br>
<p>Together with Fitler Square, the Rittenhouse neighborhood and the square comprise the Rittenhouse–Fitler Historic District.</p><br>
<p>Rittenhouse Square is maintained by the non-profit group The Friends of Rittenhouse Square. The square cuts off 19th Street at Walnut Street and also at a half-block above Manning Street. Its boundaries are 18th Street to the east, Walnut Street to the north, and Rittenhouse Square West, a north–south boundary street, and Rittenhouse Square South, an east–west boundary street, making the park approximately two short blocks on each side. Locust Street borders Rittenhouse Square to both its east and west in the middle of the square.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>Originally called Southwest Square, Rittenhouse Square was renamed in 1825 after David Rittenhouse, a descendant of the first paper-maker in Philadelphia, the German immigrant William Rittenhouse. William Rittenhouse&#39;s original paper-mill site is known as Rittenhousetown, located in the rural setting of Fairmount Park along Paper Mill Run. David Rittenhouse was a clockmaker and friend of the American Revolution, as well as a noted astronomer; a lunar crater is named after him.</p><br>
<p>In the early 19th century, as the city grew steadily from the Delaware River to the Schuylkill River, it became obvious that Rittenhouse Square would become a highly desirable address. James Harper, a merchant and brick manufacturer who had recently retired from the United States Congress, was the first person to build on the square, buying most of the north frontage, erecting a stately townhouse for himself at 1811 Walnut Street (c. 1840). Having thus set the patrician residential tone that would subsequently define the Square, he divided the rest of the land into generously proportioned building lots and sold them. Sold after the congressman&#39;s death, the Harper house became the home of the exclusive Rittenhouse Club, which added the present facade in c. 1901.</p><br>
<p>From 1876 to 1929, Rittenhouse Square was home to several wealthy families including Pennsylvania Railroad president Alexander Cassatt, real estate entrepreneur William Weightman III, department store founder John Wanamaker, Philadelphia planning commission director Edmund Bacon and his son, actor Kevin Bacon, as well as others.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>Elegant churches and clubs were constructed by John Notman and Frank Furness. In 1913, French architect Paul Philippe Cret redesigned parts of the Square to resemble Paris and the French gardens, adding classical entryways and stone additions to railings, pools, and fountains.</p><br>
<p>After World War II, Rittenhouse Squares Victorian mansions began to be replaced with high-rise residential and office buildings such as Claridge and Savoy. Vacant lots were converted to apartments and hotels. Still, some prominent Italianate and Art Deco buildings remain, and Rittenhouse Square has changed the least out of the citys initial squares. Journalist and author Jane Jacobs wrote about two main ideas in Cret&#39;s redesign: intricacy and centering.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-20th century, the park became known as a safe area for gays and lesbians to meet in Center City.</p><br>
<h2>Arts and culture</h2><br>
<p>Rittenhouse Square is surrounded by high rise residences, luxury apartments, an office tower, restaurants, and other businesses and residences. Its green grasses and dozens of benches are popular lunch-time destinations for residents and workers in Philadelphia&#39;s Center City neighborhood, while its lion and goat statues are popular gathering spots for small children and their parents. The park is a popular dog walking destination for area residents, as was shown in the fictional film In Her Shoes. The Square was discussed in a favorable light by Jane Jacobs in her seminal work, The Death and Life of Great American Cities.</p><br>
<p>The Rittenhouse neighborhood is home to many cultural institutions, including the Curtis Institute of Music, Philadelphia Youth Orchestra, the Ethical Society, the Philadelphia Art Alliance, the Rosenbach Museum & Library, Plays & Players, the Wine School of Philadelphia, and the Civil War and Underground Railroad Museum. Delancey Place is a quiet, historical street lined with Civil War-era mansions and the setting for Hollywood movies, located only two blocks south of the square.</p><br>
<p>The square is home to many works of public art. Among them is a bas-relief bust of J. William White done by R. Tait McKenzie. Billy, the goat was created by Philadelphian Albert Laessle, who also designed the Penguins statue at the Philadelphia Zoo.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Residents are in the Albert M. Greenfield School catchment area for grades kindergarten through eight; all persons assigned to Greenfield are zoned to Benjamin Franklin High School. Previously South Philadelphia High School was the neighborhood&#39;s zoned high school.</p><br>
<p>The Curtis Institute of Music, University of the Arts, and Peirce College are all in the Rittenhouse neighborhood.</p><br>
<p>The Free Library of Philadelphia operates the Philadelphia City Institute on the first floor and lower level of an apartment complex at 1905 Locust Street; the apartment building is known as 220 West Rittenhouse Square.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Rittenhouse Square is accessible via several forms of public transportation.</p><br>
<p>All SEPTA Regional Rail lines stop at Suburban Station, about six blocks north and east of the Square.</p><br>
<p>The PATCO Speedline, a rapid transit system connecting Philadelphia and Southern New Jersey, has its western terminus at 16th and Locust Sts., two blocks east of the Square.</p><br>
<p>The SEPTA 9, 12, 21, and 42 buses westbound run along Walnut Street. The 17 runs northbound along 20th Street and southbound along 19th Street and Rittenhouse Square West and the 2 runs northbound along 16th Street and southbound along 17th Street.</p><br>
<p>The SEPTA Subway–Surface Trolley Lines have a station at 19th and Market Streets, two blocks north of the Square. The Walnut–Locust station on the Broad Street Subway is four blocks east.</p><br>
<h2>In Film</h2><br>
<p>Trading Places (1983) – Billy Ray Valentine (Eddie Murphy) pretends to be a blind cripple in the park.</p><br>
<p>In Her Shoes (2005) – Scenes were filmed throughout Philadelphia, with Rittenhouse Square as a major location.</p><br>
<p>Limitless (2011) – A dive bar scene was filmed at a location near Rittenhouse Square.</p><br>
<p>The Upside (2019) – Features several notable Philadelphia sites, including Rittenhouse Square.</p><br>
<p>Silver Linings Playbook (2012) – Features various Philadelphia locations, including the square.</p><br>
<p>Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (2009) – Some scenes shot in nearby areas include the park&#39;s surroundings.</p><br>
<p>The Sixth Sense (1999) – Locations around Rittenhouse contribute to the film&#39;s ambiance.</p><br>
<p>The Age of Innocence (1993) – Historic sites, including Rittenhouse Square, appear for authenticity.</p><br>
<p>The Happening (2008) – M. Night Shyamalan&#39;s thriller used several Philly landmarks, including the park.</p><br>
<p>Beloved (1998) – Includes exterior shots around Philadelphia and near Rittenhouse.</p><br>
<p>Marley & Me (2008) – Some scenes were filmed near Broad and Walnut streets, close to Rittenhouse.</p><br>
<p>Law Abiding Citizen (2009) – Intense scenes filmed near Rittenhouse Square.</p><br>
<p>Rocky II (1979) – The iconic training montage features the area around the park.</p><br>
<p>The Wrestler (2008) – Key scenes use the park as a backdrop.</p><br>
<p>Creed (2015) – Honors the “Rocky” legacy with scenes near the square.</p><br>
<p>Twelve Monkeys (1995) – Bruce Willis&#39;s character visits various Philly landmarks, including near the park.</p><br>
<p>Philadelphia (1993) – Tom Hanks&#39;s Oscar-winning role features scenes in and near the square.</p><br>
<p>National Treasure (2004) – Some scenes show the square&#39;s surroundings.</p><br>
<p>Dispatches from Elsewhere (2020) – The series prominently features the square in its episodes.</p><br>
<p>Rittenhouse Square (2022) – A film that pays tribute to the park’s cultural significance.</p><br>
<p>Mannequin (1987) – Features key scenes shot at various Philadelphia locations, including around Rittenhouse Square.</p><br>
<p>Fort de Chartres was a French fortification first built in 1720 on the east bank of the Mississippi River in present-day Illinois. It was used as the administrative center for the province, which was part of New France. Due generally to river flooding, the fort was rebuilt twice, the last time in limestone in the 1750s in the era of French colonial control over Louisiana and the Illinois Country.</p><br>
<p>The magazine (ammunition storehouse) of the fort is believed to be the oldest surviving building in Illinois. A partial reconstruction now exists of the limestone fort and the site is preserved as an Illinois state park, four miles (6 km) west of Prairie du Rocher in Randolph County, Illinois. Located on the floodplain area that became known as the American Bottom, the site is south of modern St. Louis. The forts were placed on the National Register of Historic Places and recognized as a National Historic Landmark on October 15, 1966. It was named one of the contributing properties to the French Colonial Historic District in 1974, along with other French-influenced sites such as the Creole House, the Pierre Menard House, the Kolmer Site (a former Indian village), and the site of Fort Kaskaskia.</p><br>
<p>The name of the fort honored Louis, duc de Chartres, son of the Regent of France. The state historic site today hosts several large re-enactments at the fort of colonial-era civil and military life each summer.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>French rule</h3><br>
<p>On January 1, 1718, the French government granted a trade monopoly to John Law and his Company of the West. Hoping to make a fortune mining precious metals, the company built a fort to protect its interests. The original wooden fort was built in 1718–1720 by a French contingent from New Orleans, led by Pierre Dugué de Boisbriant. When administration of the Illinois Country was moved from Quebec City to New Orleans, governance was transferred to the Company of the Indies. The fort was built to be the seat of government and to control the Indians of the region, particularly the Fox. The original fort was a palisade of logs with two bastions at opposite corners.</p><br>
<p>Within five years, flooding from the Mississippi had left the original fort in bad condition. Construction of a second fort further from the river, but still on the flood plain, began in 1725. This fort was also made of logs and had a bastion at each of the four corners.</p><br>
<p>The second wooden fort deteriorated somewhat less rapidly but by 1742 was in bad repair. In 1747 the French garrison moved to the region&#39;s primary settlement 18 mi to the south at Kaskaskia. The French debated where to rebuild the fort. When rule of the area reverted to the French crown in the 1730s, officials began to discuss construction of a stone fortress. The government in New Orleans wanted to move the garrison permanently to Kaskaskia, but the local commandant argued for a location near the original site.</p><br>
<p>The government decided to rebuild a fort in stone near the first forts rather than at Kaskaskia. Construction began in 1753 and was mostly completed in 1754. The limestone fort had walls 15-ft (3 m)-high and 3-ft (1 m)-thick, enclosing an area of 4 acres (16,000 m). The stone for construction was quarried in bluffs about two or three miles (4 km) distant and had to be ferried across a small lake.</p><br>
<p>In August 1751 Francois Saucier was summoned from Mobile to New Orleans by Governor Vaudreuil for a special assignment. This assignment was for the construction of a new fort to accommodate the garrison of additional troops that France was sending to the colony. The new fort was to replace the old wooden Fort de Chartres and was to be constructed of stone at the settlement. The main purpose of the new fort was to impress the warring Chickasaw Tribe of the area and to check and halt the progress of the British in the area. This new assignment required Francois to immediately journey to his new post in Illinois without the benefit of first returning home to Mobile for personal necessities.</p><br>
<p>The original intention of the French Government was for Francois and his crew to build the new stone Fort de Chartres in Kaskaskia. The Governor of the territory, Vaudreuil, eventually made the decision to leave the Fort where it stood. Due to problems of flooding it was decided to move it a little over one half mile north of the old fort. Upon arriving he took on the task of surveying the terrain, its situation and advantages, in order to make recommendations on construction. Once his plans were completed he sent them as instructed to the governor in New Orleans with all specifications and estimated costs. After some time of deliberations by the French government and many delays and discussions of the cost of construction as planned by Francois, a scaled down version of the fort was finally given approval and Francois was then given permission to start its construction. During this period of waiting for approval from France, preparations were being conducted by Francois and his crew of soldiers as he had been instructed by the governor for the forts construction, including clearing the land, felling of trees for timber and other site preparations. After the many earlier delays, the budget for building the new fort was finally approved and they proceed with the construction of Fort de Chartres.</p><br>
<h3>British rule</h3><br>
<p>In 1763 the Treaty of Paris was signed following the Seven Years&#39; War (French and Indian War) and the French transferred control of the Illinois Country east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. (Spain had been granted the western part of the Illinois Country—also known as Upper Louisiana—in the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau.) The stone fort had served as center of French administration of the region for only twenty years.</p><br>
<p>The British had difficulty getting a regiment to their newly acquired fort, but on October 10, 1765, a small detachment of the 42nd Regiment of Foot commanded by Captain Thomas Stirling took control of the fort and surrounding area. The 42nd was shortly replaced by the 34th Foot. French Canadian settlers were ordered to leave or get a special license to remain. Many Canadien settlers moved to the more congenial culture of St. Louis. The 34th Regiment of Foot renamed the installation Fort Cavendish, after its colonel. However, the post was known as Ft. Chartres from 1768 on, after the 34th were replaced by the 18th Regiment of Foot under the command of Lt. Col. Wilkins. The British abandoned the post in May 1772 when the majority of the 18th Foot was ordered back to Philadelphia. A small party under Capt Hugh Lord remained at Kaskaskia until May 1776.</p><br>
<h3>Ruin</h3><br>
<p>The Mississippi continued to take its toll after the fort was abandoned. In 1772 the south wall and bastion fell into the river. The remaining walls deteriorated, and visitors noted trees growing in them by the 1820s. Locals carted away stones for construction over the years. By 1900 the walls were gone. The only part of the original fort that remained was the stone masonry powder magazine.</p><br>
<h3>Reconstruction</h3><br>
<p>The State of Illinois acquired the ruins in 1913 as a historic site and restored the powder magazine in 1917. The powder magazine is thought to be the oldest existing building in the state of Illinois. In the 1920s the foundations of the fort&#39;s buildings and walls were exposed. In the late 1920s and through the 1930s, the US WPA rebuilt the gateway and two stone buildings.</p><br>
<p>A combination museum and office building, constructed in 1928 on the foundation of an original fort building, houses exhibits depicting French life at Fort de Chartres. The large stone "Guards House", reconstructed in 1936, contains a Catholic chapel furnished in the style of the 1750s, along with a priests room, a gunners room, an officer-of-the-day room, and a guard&#39;s room. Also on the grounds are an operating bake oven, a garden shed built of upright logs in French Colonial poteaux-sur-sol (French: "post on sill") construction, and a kitchen garden with raised beds of produce typical of French 18th-century Illinois.</p><br>
<p>Partial reconstruction of the forts walls on the original foundations followed in 1989. The frames of some additional buildings were erected as a display of the post-and-beam construction techniques used for the originals. Other buildings foundations and cellars were exposed for educational display as well.</p><br>
<p>Today the site has a museum and small gift shop. It plays host each June to a Rendezvous that is said to be one of the largest and oldest in the country, celebrating frontier French and Indian culture.</p><br>
<p>The site is protected by modern levees, but the Mississippi River is still an occasional menace. The flood of 1993 breached the levee and sent waters fifteen feet deep to lap at the top of the walls.</p><br>
<p>Marshall Hall, Maryland is the site of the Marshall family mansion. It is now part of Piscataway Park operated by the National Park Service. Marshall Hall is located near Bryans Road in Charles County, Maryland, next to the Potomac River, more or less across from Mount Vernon, Virginia, the home of George Washington. The home was one of the finest built on the Maryland shore of the Potomac in the early 18th century. The Marshall family were minor gentry and owned as many as 80 slaves by the early 19th century.</p><br>
<p>Soon after the Civil War, the site became a highly frequented picnic ground because of its proximity to Mount Vernon. Steamship lines, originally established to ferry tourists from Washington D.C. and Alexandria to/from Mount Vernon, discovered a new source of revenue in the park across from the historic estate. In the 1880s, the Mount Vernon and Marshall Hall Steamboat Company ran large ships between Washington, Alexandria, Mount Vernon and Marshall Hall: the round-trip fare at that time was $1, and included admission to Mount Vernon. Washingtonians fled the summer heat of the city for all sorts of events at the picnic grounds, from exclusive catered events to popular cultural events such as a swimming exhibition given by the daredevil Robert Emmet Odlum in the summer of 1878, seven years before his death at the Brooklyn Bridge. Marshall Hall later became one of the first amusement parks in the Washington, D.C., area in the 1890s, offering numerous "appliances of entertainment" (as one deed described them) for visitors who wanted to do more than picnic, many of them arriving by river boat. Starting in the 1870s, annual jousting tournaments took place at the site. New attractions were added throughout the 20th century, and gambling became a major draw for a while after World War II. Between 1949 and 1968, the Southern Maryland area offered the only legal slot machines in the United States outside of Nevada.</p><br>
<p>The National Park Service gained control of the park after Congress, acting upon a request from the Mount Vernon Ladies&#39; Association, mandated that the views from Mt. Vernon had to be protected and returned to something resembling the days when George Washington sat on his colonnaded porch and looked across the Potomac. The term "historic viewshed" was coined for this act of preservation. The Park Service tore down all vestiges of the amusement park in 1980, whose popularity had declined due to competition by much larger, newer parks. A fire destroyed much of the colonial house soon after. In January 2003, a truck driver slammed his rig through the remaining hulk. The damage done to the brick shell was repaired the following year.</p><br>
<p>Fort McClary is a former defensive fortification of the United States military located along the southern coast at Kittery Point, Maine at the mouth of the Piscataqua River. It was used throughout the 19th century to protect approaches to the harbor of Portsmouth, New Hampshire and the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery. The property and its surviving structures are now owned and operated by the State of Maine as Fort McClary State Historic Site, including a blockhouse dating from 1844.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Colonial period</h3><br>
<p>Coastal defenses on the site date to the late 17th century when shipbuilder William Pepperell (father of William Pepperrell) acquired the property and erected crude defense works in 1689. Prior to that, the village was protected by Fort William and Mary at New Castle. The Province of Massachusetts Bay voted in 1715 to erect a permanent breastwork of six guns for the defense of the Piscataqua River, during the lead-up to Father Rale&#39;s War. Some sources state that it was intended to protect Maine (then part of Massachusetts) from "unreasonable duties" (taxes) that the governor of New Hampshire was attempting to impose on nearby citizens of other colonies. The fort was also used to collect duties from Massachusetts citizens for its own upkeep. This fortification was transferred to the United States government in 1803, known as Fort William, but none of its features are known to survive.</p><br>
<p>The Pepperrells remained loyal to the British in 1775, so their property was confiscated by local Patriot forces, including the fort. In 1776, ammunition was provided for the fort&#39;s 9-pounder and 12-pounder cannon, and the New Hampshire militia manned the fort until 1779.</p><br>
<h3>Second system period</h3><br>
<p>Fort McClary was officially established in 1808 as part of the second system of US fortifications. It was named for New Hampshire native Major Andrew McClary, an American officer killed in the 1775 Battle of Bunker Hill. It consisted of a semi-elliptical lower battery of 9 or 10 guns and a shot furnace, and an upper battery near the present blockhouse whose armament does not appear in references. The fort was used throughout the 19th century, most notably during the War of 1812, but it saw no action.</p><br>
<h3>Third system and Civil War</h3><br>
<p>The fort was further expanded in the 1840s, probably a consequence of tensions with Great Britain over the disputed border between Maine and New Brunswick which culminated in the bloodless Aroostook War and the 1842 Webster-Ashburton Treaty. The blockhouse was built in 1844 near the former upper battery; this was the last blockhouse built at a fort in Maine, and probably one of the last in a US coastal fort. The fort saw active use during the American Civil War, at which time it achieved much of its present structure due to a rebuilding under the third system that was never completed. The fort was manned near the start of the war by the Maine Coast Guard and the Kittery Artillery company, and in 1864 was also manned by the Maine State Guard. Its Civil War garrison notably included Vice President Hannibal Hamlin, who enlisted in Company A of the Maine State Guard as a private and served as a cook in the fort. Some subsequent citations erroneously confuse his unit with the Maine Coast Guard — including a plaque at the fort.</p><br>
<p>The fort saw little action during the Civil War. A major rebuilding and expansion began in 1863 as part of the third system of fortifications, and the intent was to create a large five-sided fort with one or two tiers of cannon all around. However, only the seawalls were completed on the two seaward fronts, along with one of the landward cannon bastions with a granite magazine. The seawall was defended by a small caponier with rifle ports. Based on war experience, masonry forts were assessed as vulnerable to rifled cannon, and funding was withdrawn from all masonry fort projects in 1867, leaving Fort McClary with few cannon positions. A large number of granite blocks remain at the fort to this day.</p><br>
<h3>Post Civil War to present</h3><br>
<p>In the 1870s, the lower battery was rebuilt with three temporary gun positions for 10-inch Parrott rifles, but funding was again cut off with few other improvements. In the 1890s, nine 15-inch Rodman smoothbore guns and seven carriages were stored at the fort, to be mounted in case of war. Three of the Rodmans were mounted as an emergency measure in the Spanish–American War of 1898. The fort was superseded by the construction of Fort Foster (Kittery, Maine) and new batteries at Fort Constitution under the Endicott Program by 1901. By the 1910s, most of the fort had fallen into disrepair and it was officially decommissioned in 1918. The State of Maine acquired most of the property from the federal government in 1924, after which it was managed as a park. Several of the dilapidated structures were demolished in the following decades. Parts of the fort were used by civilian defense forces during World War II. In 1969, it was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. The blockhouse and other structures were renovated in 1987, and the blockhouse serves as a museum.</p><br>
<p>The Old South Meeting House is a historic Congregational church building located at the corner of Milk and Washington Streets in the Downtown Crossing area of Boston, Massachusetts, built in 1729. It gained fame as the organizing point for the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773. Five thousand or more colonists gathered at the Meeting House, the largest building in Boston at the time.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Church (1729–1872)</h3><br>
<p>The meeting house or church was completed in 1729, with its 56 m (183 ft) steeple. The congregation was gathered in 1669 when it broke off from First Church of Boston, a Congregational church founded by John Winthrop in 1630. The site was a gift of Mrs. Norton, widow of John Norton, pastor of the First Church in Boston. The church&#39;s first pastor was Rev. Thomas Thacher, a native of Salisbury, England. Thacher was also a physician and is known for publishing the first medical tract in Massachusetts.</p><br>
<p>After the Boston Massacre in 1770, yearly anniversary meetings were held at the church until 1775, featuring speakers such as John Hancock and Dr. Joseph Warren. In 1773, 5,000 people met in the Meeting House to debate British taxation and, after the meeting, a group raided three tea ships anchored nearby in what became known as the Boston Tea Party.</p><br>
<p>In October 1775, led by Lt Col Samuel Birch of the 17th Dragoons, the British occupied the Meeting House due to its association with the Revolutionary cause. They gutted the building, filled it with dirt, and then used the interior to practice horse riding. They destroyed much of the interior and stole various items, including William Bradfords Of Plymouth Plantation (1620), a unique Pilgrim manuscript hidden in Old Souths tower. After the British evacuated Boston, the plan for rebuilding the interior of the church was drawn by Thomas Dawes.</p><br>
<p>Old South Meeting House was almost destroyed in the Great Boston Fire of 1872. As the fire approached the historic structure, Boston firefighting crews, understanding the importance of the building to the history of Boston and the nation, staged a massive effort to protect it. Aided by the arrival of fire companies from across New England, the firefighters took heroic measures to extinguish the flames after a twelve-hour battle, saving Old South and stopping the fire before it reached other historic buildings and residential neighborhoods. As the city rebuilt, the congregation sought out a quieter neighborhood, away from the bustling commercial area near OSMH. The congregation built a new church building (the "New" Old South Church in the Back Bay, at Copley Square), which remains its home to this day. In 1877, a group of twenty women, including the philanthropist Mary Hemenway (who used $100,000 of her own funds) and Mary Tyler (allegedly the inspiration for the poem "Mary Had a Little Lamb"), raised money and helped pass legislation to preserve and save the Meeting House. By 1910, preservation work was transferred to the Old South Association through aid from the Mary Hemenway Foundation. The Old South congregation returns to Old South Meeting House for services in its ancestral home once a year, on the Sunday before Thanksgiving.</p><br>
<h4>Ministers</h4><br>
<p>Thomas Thacher (1620–1678), minister 1670–1678</p><br>
<p>Samuel Willard (1640–1707), minister 1678–1707</p><br>
<p>Ebenezer Pemberton (1671–1717), minister 1700–1717</p><br>
<p>Joseph Sewall (1688–1769), minister 1713–1769</p><br>
<p>Thomas Prince (1687–1758), minister 1718–1758</p><br>
<p>Alexander Cumming (1726–1763), minister 1761–1763</p><br>
<p>Samuel Blair (1741–1818), minister 1766-1769</p><br>
<p>John Bacon (1737-1818), minister 1772–1775</p><br>
<p>Joseph Eckley (1750–1811), minister 1779–1811</p><br>
<p>Joshua Huntington (1786–1819), minister 1808–1819</p><br>
<p>Benjamin B. Wisner (1794–1835), minister 1821–1832</p><br>
<p>Samuel H. Stearns (1801–1837), minister 1834–1836</p><br>
<p>George W. Blagden (1802–1884), minister 1836–1872</p><br>
<p>Jacob M. Manning (1824–1882), minister 1857–1872</p><br>
<h4>Notable congregants</h4><br>
<p>John Alden</p><br>
<p>John Alden Jr.</p><br>
<p>Judith Quincy Hull</p><br>
<p>Hannah Quincy Hull (Sewall)</p><br>
<p>John Hull</p><br>
<p>Daniel Quincy</p><br>
<p>Samuel Adams</p><br>
<p>William Dawes</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Franklin</p><br>
<p>Samuel Sewall</p><br>
<p>Phillis Wheatley</p><br>
<h3>Museum (1877–present)</h3><br>
<p>Old South Meeting House has been an important gathering place for nearly three centuries. Renowned for the protest meetings held here before the American Revolution when the building was termed a mouth-house, this National Historic Landmark has long served as a platform for the free expression of ideas. Today, the Old South Meeting House is open daily as a museum and continues to provide a place for people to meet, discuss and act on important issues of the day. The stories of the men and women who are part of Old South&#39;s vital heritage reveal why the Old South Meeting House occupies an enduring place in the history of the United States.</p><br>
<p>The museum and historic site is located at the intersection of Washington and Milk Streets and can be visited for a nominal sum. It is located near the State Street, Downtown Crossing and Park Street MBTA (subway) stations.</p><br>
<p>The Old South Meeting House is claimed to be the second oldest establishment existent in the United States. It is currently under consideration for local landmark status by the Boston Landmarks Commission.</p><br>
<p>In 2020 the former caretaker of Old South Meeting House (the Old South Association in Boston) merged with the Bostonian Society, forming Revolutionary Spaces, which now manages both Old South Meeting House and the Old State House.</p><br>
<p>The Massachusetts State House, also known as the Massachusetts Statehouse or the New State House, is the state capitol and seat of government for the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, located in the Beacon Hill neighborhood of Boston. The building houses the Massachusetts General Court  and the offices of the Governor of Massachusetts. The building, designed by architect Charles Bulfinch, was completed in January 1798 at a cost of $133,333 , and has repeatedly been enlarged since. It is one of the oldest state capitols in current use. It is considered a masterpiece of Federal architecture and among Bulfinch&#39;s finest works, and was designated a National Historic Landmark for its architectural significance.</p><br>
<h2>Building and grounds</h2><br>
<p>Today the building officially functions and is maintained under the auspices of the Superintendent of the Bureau of the State House.</p><br>
<p>The building is situated on of land on top of Beacon Hill in Boston, opposite the Boston Common on Beacon Street. It was built on land once owned by John Hancock, Massachusetts&#39;s first elected governor. The Masonic cornerstone ceremony took place on July 4, 1795, with Paul Revere, then Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts, presiding.</p><br>
<p>Before the current State House was completed in 1798, Massachusettss government house was the Old State House on what is now Washington Street. For the buildings design, architect Charles Bulfinch made use of two existing buildings in London: William Chamberss Somerset House, and James Wyatts Pantheon.</p><br>
<p>After Maine separated from Massachusetts and became an independent state in 1820, Charles Bulfinch designed Maine&#39;s capitol building with architectural influence of the Massachusetts Capitol building with a simplified Greek Revival influence.</p><br>
<p>The Commonwealth completed a major expansion of the original building in 1895. The architect for the annex was Bostonian Charles Brigham.</p><br>
<p>In 1917, the east and west wings, designed by architects Sturgis, Bryant, Chapman & Andrews, were completed.</p><br>
<p>In July 2016, Governor Charlie Baker proposed to the state legislature to sell 300 ft&sup2; of permanent easement on the west side of the State House lawn to a neighboring condominium. The land in question was once pasture owned by John Hancock and the easement would allow for the addition of au pair units. Through legislation passed by the legislature the land surrounding the state house is considered "open space".</p><br>
<h3>Dome</h3><br>
<p>The original wood dome, which leaked, was covered with copper in 1802 by Paul Revere&#39;s Revere Copper Company. Revere was the first American to roll copper successfully into sheets (for copper sheathing) in a commercially viable manner.</p><br>
<p>The dome was first painted gray and then light yellow before being gilded with gold leaf in 1874. During World War II, the dome was painted gray once again, to prevent reflection during blackouts and to protect the city and building from bombing attacks. The dome was re-gilded in 1969, at a cost of $36,000. Then, in July 1997, the dome was once again re-gilded, in 23k gold. The estimated cost this time was $1.5 million.</p><br>
<p>The dome is topped with a gilded, wooden pine cone, symbolizing both the importance of Boston&#39;s lumber industry during early colonial times and of the state of Maine, which was a district of the Commonwealth when the Bulfinch section of the building was completed.</p><br>
<h3>Statuary</h3><br>
<p>In front of the building is an equestrian statue of General Joseph Hooker. Other statues in front of the building include Daniel Webster, educator Horace Mann, and former US President John F. Kennedy. The statues of Anne Hutchinson and Mary Dyer are located on the lawns below the east and west wings. Inside the building is a statue of William Francis Bartlett, an officer in the Civil War.</p><br>
<h3>Building interior</h3><br>
<p>The original red-brick Bulfinch building contains the Governor&#39;s offices (on the west end) with the Massachusetts Senate occupying the former House of Representatives Chamber under the dome. The Massachusetts House of Representatives occupies a chamber on the west side of the Brigham addition. Hanging over this chamber is the "Sacred Cod", which was given to the House of Representatives in 1784 by a Boston merchant. The Sacred Cod symbolizes the importance of the fishing industry to the early Massachusetts economy.</p><br>
<p>The House Chamber is decorated with murals by Albert Herter, father of Massachusetts Gov. Christian Herter. Murals on the second floor under the dome were painted by artist Edward Brodney. Brodney won a competition to paint the first mural in a contest sponsored by the Works Progress Administration in 1936. It is entitled "Columbia Knighting Her World War Disabled". Brodney could not afford to pay models, and friends and family posed. The model for Columbia was Brodney&#39;s sister Norma Brodney Cohen, and the model for the soldier on one knee in the foreground was his brother Fred Brodney. In 1938, he painted a second mural under the dome called "World War Mothers". The models were again primarily friends and family members, with sister Norma sitting beside their mother Sarah Brodney. The New York Times notes that the murals are relatively rare examples of military art with women as their subjects.</p><br>
<p>A staircase in front of the Bulfinch building leads from Beacon Street to Doric Hall inside the building. The large main doors inside Doric Hall are only opened on three occasions:</p><br>
<p>When the President of the United States or a foreign head of state visits.</p><br>
<p>When the Governor exits the building on his or her last day in office. The Governor descends the staircase, crosses Beacon Street, and enters Boston Common, symbolically rejoining the people of Massachusetts as a private citizen.</p><br>
<p>When a regimental flag is returned from battle. Since the regimental flags now return to Washington, D.C., this has not been done since the Vietnam War.</p><br>
<p>Memorial Hall, also known as the Hall of Flags, is a room that sits central to the state house&#39;s second floor. The room displays regiment flags of returning Massachusetts soldiers from various regiments across every war since the Civil War. The stained glass skylight above contains the seals of the original Thirteen Colonies of the United States, with the Massachusetts seal in the center.</p><br>
<p>The Samuel Adams and Paul Revere time capsule is a metal box located in a cornerstone of the State House, placed there in the late 18th century and rediscovered in 2014. The contents include coins, newspaper clippings, and other historical artifacts.</p><br>
<h2>Offices</h2><br>
<h3>Constitutional Officers</h3><br>
<p>The State House contains the primary offices of all the commonwealth&#39;s constitutional officers with exception of the Attorney General, who is based at the nearby McCormack Building.</p><br>
<p>Governor and Lieutenant Governor (Room 360)</p><br>
<p>Governor&#39;s Council (Room 184)</p><br>
<p>Secretary of the Commonwealth (Room 340)</p><br>
<p>Treasurer and Receiver-General (Room 227)</p><br>
<p>Auditor (Room 230)</p><br>
<h3>Legislature</h3><br>
<p>The majority of State House office space is given over to the Legislature. Every member of the House and Senate is assigned an office. Large third-floor suites are assigned to the House Speaker (Room 356) and Senate President (Room 332). Other offices include the House and Senate clerks, House and Senate counsel, and Legislative Information Services.</p><br>
<h3>Press</h3><br>
<p>One corridor of the building&#39;s fourth floor is a sort of Newspaper Row, anchored by the large Press Gallery suite where reporters from a range of publications maintain desks. The central Press Gallery room was given to use of reporters by the Legislature in 1909. The Massachusetts State House Press Association, established in 1909, governs these shared workspaces. Some individual news outlets have separate offices.</p><br>
<p>Press Gallery—Headquarters of State House reporters for Associated Press, WWLP-TV, the Eagle-Tribune papers, Lowell Sun, WGBH-FM, Springfield Republican/Masslive, and Politico</p><br>
<p>State House News Service newsroom</p><br>
<p>WBUR-FM State House bureau</p><br>
<p>Boston Globe State House bureau</p><br>
<p>Kevin McNicholas Room, a shared space for broadcast stations</p><br>
<h3>Veterans&#39; Organizations</h3><br>
<p>A suite of rooms on the fifth floor is home to the Massachusetts headquarters of several veterans&#39; groups, including the American Legion, American Legion Auxiliary, AMVETS, Disabled American Veterans, Italian American War Veterans of the United States, Jewish War Veterans of the United States of America, Korean War Veterans, Marine Corps League, Military Order of the Purple Heart, Persian Gulf Era Veterans, Polish Legion of American Veterans, Veterans of Foreign Wars, and Vietnam Veterans of America.</p><br>
<h2>"Hub of the Solar System" nickname</h2><br>
<p>One of Bostons most enduring nicknames, "The Hub of the Universe", stems from a remark by Oliver Wendell Holmes from his 1858 book The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table in which he mentions the State House: "A jaunty-looking person... said there was one more wise mans saying that he had heard; it was about our place—but he didnt know who said it.... Boston State-House is the Hub of the Solar System. You couldnt pry that out of a Boston man if you had the tire of all creation straightened out for a crow-bar".</p><br>
<p>Trinity Church in the City of Boston, located in the Back Bay neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, is a parish of the Episcopal Diocese of Massachusetts. The congregation, currently standing at approximately 4,000 households, was founded in 1733. Three services are offered each Sunday, and weekday services are offered once a week from September through June. Within the spectrum of worship styles in the Anglican tradition, Trinity Church has historically been considered a Broad Church parish.</p><br>
<p>In addition to worship, the parish is actively involved in service to the community, pastoral care, programs for children and teenagers, and Christian education for all ages. The church is home to several high-level choirs, including the Trinity Choir, Trinity Schola, Trinity Choristers, and Trinity Chamber Choir. The building, designed by Henry Hobson Richardson, is currently under study for becoming a Boston Landmark.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After its former site on Summer Street burned in the Great Boston Fire of 1872, the current church complex was erected under the direction of Rector Phillips Brooks (1835–1893), one of the best-known and most charismatic preachers of his time.</p><br>
<p>The church and parish house were designed by Henry Hobson Richardson and construction took place from 1872 to 1877, when the complex was consecrated. Situated on Copley Square in Back Bay, Trinity Church is the building that established Richardson&#39;s reputation. It is the birthplace and archetype of the Richardsonian Romanesque style, characterized by a clay roof, polychromy, rough stone, heavy arches, and a massive tower. This style was soon adopted for a number of public buildings across the United States. The stone used was Dedham Granite.</p><br>
<p>Stanford White, then working in H.H. Richardson&#39;s office, designed the current main tower of the Trinity Church of Boston in 1872, basing it on the romanesque tower of the Old Cathedral of Salamanca (Spain).</p><br>
<p>According to L.C. Norton, the inventor of door checks, the heavy main entrance doors of Trinity Church were the first to be fitted with a quiet and effective means to resist slamming. This led to a patented pneumatic door check that was seen throughout the 1880s to 1910s. Norton&#39;s door check device eventually developed into the modern door closer with his guidance in both the Norton Door Controls and LCN companies.</p><br>
<h2>Music</h2><br>
<h3>Choirs</h3><br>
<p>Each December, the choirs of Trinity offer three iterations of a service of Candlelight Carols. These are a "Boston tradition", and very popular events, drawing nearly 5,000 attendees from as far away as Maine. A traditional scene in Copley Square in December is that of a long line of people waiting to enter the church for the free event. The service is based on the Nine Lessons and Carols model developed at King&#39;s College, Cambridge from a service at Truro Cathedral in Cornwall.</p><br>
<p>In addition to their primary function of supporting worship, the choirs of Trinity Church are fixtures in the rich musical landscape of Boston. The Trinity Choir has toured extensively, and can be heard on several critically acclaimed recordings. The Trinity Choristers are a group of children who learn music and sing in the tradition of the Royal School of Church Music. The current Director of Music and Organist is Colin Lynch. The Trinity Choir and Trinity Choristers tour England every three years, serving as choirs-in-residence at major houses of worship such as Ely Cathedral, Chichester Cathedral, and Westminster Abbey (summer 2016).</p><br>
<h3>Organs</h3><br>
<p>1876: The original organ at Trinity was built by Hilborne L. Roosevelt in 1876, his Opus 29. It had mechanical action, assisted by Barker levers on all divisions and an electrically controlled Echo division, but its location in the chancel proved unsatisfactory, and the organ was moved to the gallery.</p><br>
<p>1903: Hutchings-Votey built a new instrument for the chancel and made both organs playable from a single console.</p><br>
<p>1924: Ernest M. Skinner undertook a rebuilding project, Opus 479, involving changes to both the Roosevelt and Hutchings-Votey instruments, but by 1926 it had expanded to Opus 573 as a virtually new organ in the gallery, as well as a new chancel console.</p><br>
<p>1956: Aeolian-Skinner provided a new console in 1956 and, in 1960, installed a new chancel organ.</p><br>
<p>1962: The gallery organ was extensively rebuilt, and major tonal modifications were made by Jason McKown, who maintained the organs for many years.</p><br>
<p>1987: Jack Steinkampf&#39; installed a rank of horizontal trumpet pipes under the west gallery window. This festival trumpet is given in memory of Paul Albert Merrill.</p><br>
<p>Late 1990s: In conjunction with the parish&#39;s building campaign, a plan was set out with Foley-Baker, Inc., for the cleaning and refurbishment of both organs and their joint console.</p><br>
<p>Late 2010s: Since 2012, the Church has slowly acquired a stockpile of Skinner and Aeolian-Skinner pipes from the general period of Trinitys organ. The pipes were installed and the organ reworked in an attempt to recapture the original Skinner sound. This work was a collaboration of Trinitys former and current organ curators: Foley-Baker Inc., of Tolland, Connecticut (who renovated the nave organ in 1999–2001, and the chancel organ in 2007), and Jonathan Ambrosino, who also maintains the organs at Old South Church and Church of the Advent. In 2018 a new four-manual organ console was built by Richard Houghten of Milan, Michigan, and J. Zamberlan & Co., in Wintersville, Ohio.</p><br>
<p>The nave and chancel organs feature 121 stops, 113 ranks, and 6898 pipes.</p><br>
<h2>Worship</h2><br>
<p>Trinity Church offers three services on Sundays, including a now rarely heard modified version of Rite I Morning Prayer including a sermon and extra anthem, as well as a service of sung Compline in the late evening. Weekday services include Wednesday Evensong and Thursday Holy Eucharist with Prayers for Healing.</p><br>
<p>Trinity has played host to many special services over the years, due mainly to its central location in Boston, large seating capacity, and reputation as a parish willing to open its doors and be "Boston&#39;s church." These services have included interfaith (Christian, Jewish, Muslim) services immediately following the 9/11 attacks, a similar service following the July 2005 London bombings, and many prominent funerals, consecrations of bishops, and the like.</p><br>
<h2>Community service</h2><br>
<p>The parish supports many forms of community outreach and social justice ministry. These include partnerships with Rosies Place, the Greater Boston Interfaith Organization, Pine Street Inn, Habitat for Humanity, Community Servings, the Walk for Hunger, the Rodman Ride for Kids, and others. The Trinity Boston Foundation is a nonprofit organization with a mission to support the social and emotional well-being and development of young people. Formed in 2007, it grew out of several of Trinity Churchs outreach ministries, and now functions as a separately incorporated subsidiary organization that directly serves approximately 500 young people in the Boston community. The Trinity Boston Foundation&#39;s programs honor and respect people of all faith traditions, including those with no faith tradition.</p><br>
<h2>Rectors</h2><br>
<p>In the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, the Rector is the priest elected to head a self-supporting parish. Because of the importance of Trinity Church in the life of the city of Boston, the Rectors had great influence in the political and social sphere, especially in the early years of the church through the mid-1900s.</p><br>
<p>Phillips Brooks, who was Rector from 1869 to 1891 has been memorialized in the official calendar of the Episcopal Church. His feast day in the calendar according to the 1979 Book of Common Prayer is January 23. His statue is located on the left exterior of the church.</p><br>
<p>The following are the Rectors of Trinity Church from its founding to the present day:</p><br>
<h2>Art and architecture</h2><br>
<p>The buildings plan is a modified Greek Cross with four arms extending outwards from the central tower, which stands 64 m (211 ft) tall. The church is situated in Copley Square, and since the 1970s, in the shadow of the John Hancock Tower. Having been built in Bostons Back Bay, which was originally a mud flat, Trinity rests on some 4,500 wooden piles, each driven through 30 feet of gravel fill, silt, and clay, and constantly wetted by the water table of the Back Bay as they will rot if exposed to air.</p><br>
<p>The central portal may have been modeled on that of Saint Trophîme at Arles,</p><br>
<p>Its interior murals, which cover over 21,500 ft&sup2; were completed entirely by American artists. Richardson and Brooks decided that a richly colored interior was essential and turned to John La Farge (1835–1910) for help. La Farge had never performed a commission on this scale, but realized its importance and asked only for his costs to be covered. The results established La Farge&#39;s reputation.</p><br>
<p>The church&#39;s windows were originally clear glass at consecration in 1877, with one exception, but soon major windows were added. Four windows were designed by Edward Burne-Jones and executed by the studio of William Morris. Another four windows were exceptional commissions by John La Farge, and revolutionized window glass with their layering of opalescent glass. The Suter window (donated by Hales W. Suter) was painted by Charles Mills.</p><br>
<p>Trinity Church is the only church in the United States and the only building in Boston that has been honored as one of the "Ten Most Significant Buildings in the United States" by the American Institute of Architects. In 1885, architects voted Trinity Church as the most important building in the USA Trinity Church is the only building from the original 1885 list still included in the AIA&#39;s current top ten list. The building was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 30, 1970.</p><br>
<p>The church also houses sculptures by Daniel Chester French and Augustus Saint-Gaudens.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>In 1985 Trinity Church was featured in the opening scene of the second television episode portraying novelist Robert B. Parkers character— Bostons preeminent detective, Spenser— in Spenser For Hire: "No Room at the Inn".</p><br>
<p>Interior scenes from the 1999 thriller The Boondock Saints were filmed within Trinity Church.</p><br>
<p>The church was featured in the 2015 video game Fallout 4.</p><br>
<p>The Trinity Church was prominently shown in Reba McEntires 1986 music video for "Whoevers in New England".</p><br>
<p>Munson  is a regional fine arts center founded in 1919 and located in Utica, New York. The institute has three program divisions, museum of art, performing arts and school of art.</p><br>
<h2>Museum of art</h2><br>
<p>The museum of art has a substantial permanent collection of internationally recognized works. They are exhibited in the Munson Museum of Art Building. It is an International-style building designed by architect Philip Johnson and completed in 1960. A model of the building was exhibited in the United States Pavilion at the Brussels Worlds Fair of 1958. It is a 60,000 sqft square and supported by eight external ferro-concrete piers, or two on each side. The exterior structural members are clad in bronze and "black" Canadian granite. The windowless cube is set above windowed office areas recessed in a dry moat, giving a "floating" effect. The interior features a two-story central courtyard, illuminated by a skylight, known as the Edward Wales Root Sculpture Court. It also holds an auditorium seating 271. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2010.</p><br>
<p>Next-door is a Victorian-era Italianate mansion called Fountain Elms, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1972. It houses the Munson decorative arts collection. It is connected to the Museum of Art building by an education wing built in 1995.</p><br>
<p>The museum has an extensive collection of European and American art. A highlight of the permanent collection is the first of the two original sets of Thomas Cole&#39;s famous series of paintings titled The Voyage of Life: The second set is at the National Gallery Washington, DC.</p><br>
<p>In 2023, as part of a rebranding effort facilitated by a Brooklyn-based design agency, the museum rebranded itself simply "Munson". The museum president stated that despite its familiarity, few people knew the entire 10-syllable name of the museum.</p><br>
<h2>School of art</h2><br>
<p>The art school was begun 1936, when The Arts Guild of New York City moved its school to a remodeled garage on the ground of the Institute and, under the name of the School of Related Arts and Sciences, began to offer courses in visual arts, the history and philosophy of art, and comparative symbolism.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, Munson became a satellite campus of the Pratt Institute. A program called Pratt at Munson-Williams-Proctor or PrattMWP allows students to study for two years in Utica, New York, called a "Foundations Program", before completing their Bachelor of Fine Arts degree at Pratt Institute&#39;s main campus in Brooklyn, New York. PrattMWP is accredited by the National Association of Schools of Art and Design, Middle States Association, and New York State Education Department.</p><br>
<p>Independence Rock is a large granite rock, approximately 130 ft high, 1,900 ft long, and 850 ft wide, which is in southwestern Natrona County, Wyoming along Wyoming Highway 220. During the middle of the 19th century, it formed a prominent and well-known landmark on the Oregon, Mormon, and California emigrant trails. Many of these emigrants carved their names on it, and it was described by early missionary and explorer Father Pierre-Jean De Smet in 1840 as the Register of the Desert. The site was designated a National Historic Landmark on January 20, 1961 and is now part of Independence Rock State Historic Site, owned and operated by the state of Wyoming.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The rock is a large rounded monolith of Archean granite typical of the surrounding region and is an isolated peak at the southeast end of the Granite Mountains. Its appearance is somewhat like the rounded Enchanted Rock of Texas or Uluru in Australia (formerly known as Ayers Rock), although smaller in size. It is located in the high plateau region of central Wyoming, north of the Sentinel Rocks ridge and adjacent to the Sweetwater River. It is accessible from a rest area on Wyoming Highway 220, approximately 20 mi northeast of Muddy Gap and 60 mi south-west of Casper.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The rock derives its name from the fact that it lies directly along the route of the Emigrant Trail. Pioneering wagon parties bound for Oregon or California usually left the Missouri River in the early spring and hoped to reach the rock by July 4 (Independence Day in the United States), in order to reach their destinations before the first mountain snowfalls. It was likely named prior to 1830. John C. Frémont camped a mile below this site on August 1, 1843 and made this entry in the journal of his 1843–1844 expedition:</p><br>
<p>Everywhere within six or eight feet of the ground, where the surface is sufficiently smooth, and in some places sixty or eighty feet above, the rock is inscribed with the names of travelers. Many a name famous in the history of this country, and some well known to science, are to be found among those of traders and travelers.</p><br>
<p>Fremont carved a large cross into the rock monolith, which was blasted off the rock on July 4, 1847 by hundreds of California and Oregon emigrants who had gathered on the site. Some Protestants considered the cross to be a symbol of the Pope and Catholicism. John Frémont was actually a member of the United States Episcopal Church.</p><br>
<p>On July 4, 1862, Independence Rock was the site of Wyoming&#39;s first Masonic Lodge meeting.</p><br>
<p>The Magnolia Hotel  is a 29-story, Beaux-Arts style, upscale hotel in the Main Street District of downtown Dallas, Texas, that for many years was the tallest building in the state after surpassing the Adolphus Hotel. The structure is a Dallas Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The building, which opened next door to the Adolphus Hotel in August 1922 at a cost of US $4 million, was originally the headquarters for the Magnolia Petroleum Company. In 1934, the company erected its trademark neon Pegasus on the buildings roof (the Pegasus logo later became the logo of Mobil Oil who merged with Magnolia Petroleum in 1959) to celebrate the American Petroleum Institutes annual meeting, held in Dallas for the first time. The rotating winged horse came to represent the city of Dallas and became one of its most recognizable and endearing landmarks, even after the building became obscured by much larger skyscrapers (the neon Pegasus can now only be seen in the downtown skyline approaching from the south).</p><br>
<p>By 1974, however, Pegasus stopped rotating due to mechanical problems and in 1977 the property was sold to the city of Dallas. The building was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.</p><br>
<p>The building was purchased by Denver, Colorado developers in 1997 and was converted into the luxury 330-room Magnolia Hotel.</p><br>
<p>In 1999, in preparation for Dallas&#39;s Millennium Celebration, Pegasus was taken down to be completely restored. However, the sign was beyond repair and a new sign was recreated from scratch. At midnight on 1 January 2000, the new Pegasus, complete with rotation, was lit for the first time. A copy of the original sign, which sat atop a Mobil Oil station in the Casa Linda neighborhood of Dallas for many decades, is now on display at the Old Red Museum.</p><br>
<p>The Mohawk Trail began as a Native American trade route which connected Atlantic tribes with tribes in Upstate New York and beyond. It followed the Millers River, Deerfield River and crossed the Hoosac Range, in the area that is now northwestern Massachusetts.</p><br>
<h2>Route</h2><br>
<p>Today the Mohawk Trail is a part of Routes 2 and 2A, following much of the original Indian trail. The exact path of the trail are not officially defined, and there is some disagreement among various sources as to its endpoints. The broadest definition runs 75 miles (121 kilometers) from Athol, Massachusetts to the border with New York in Williamstown, Massachusetts, passing through the communities of Orange, Erving, Gill, Greenfield, Shelburne, Buckland, Charlemont, Savoy, Florida, and North Adams. However, other sources use a narrower definition, with the eastern terminus being in Millers Falls, Greenfield, or Charlemont. The trail is generally considered to follow Route 2A in the east (which diverges from Route 2 as it goes through the town centers of Athol, Orange, and Greenfield) and continue on Route 2 after Route 2A ends in Greenfield.</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<p>The modern day Mohawk Trail is considered one of the most beautiful drives in Massachusetts. The Berkshire mountains are clearly visible from several points. There are numerous points of interest along the way, including many scenic viewpoints, roadside attractions and gift shops. Of particular note is Hail to the Sunrise at Mohawk Park, a statue made in tribute to Native American heritage. A portion of the trail parallels the Deerfield River for several miles, and passes through the village of Shelburne Falls, and the Bridge of Flowers. The route crosses the Connecticut River via the historic French King Bridge at a height of 140 feet. The road reaches a high elevation of 2272 feet at Whitcomb Summit. On the western side of the summit there is the popular hairpin turn and lookout, overlooking the city of North Adams and the Taconic Mountains. On the eastern side, the highway descends steeply eastward from Whitcomb Summit down the slope of the Hoosac Range following the Cold River to the Deerfield River. Notable features include the infamous Dead Man&#39;s Curve.</p><br>
<p>A six-mile section of the Mohawk Trail was severely damaged by Hurricane Irene in August 2011. A considerable portion of the road is surrounded by the Mohawk Trail State Forest, a 6,400 acre forest, known for its camping, and occasional encounters with bobcats and black bears. Within this area there is substantial acreage of old growth forest containing many of the tallest trees in Massachusetts as verified by the Eastern Native Tree Society.</p><br>
<p>The route passes close to Vermont&#39;s southern border, and alternate routes travel north into Vermont to Harriman Reservoir and Ball Mountain State Park. The western terminus in Williamstown provides access to Mount Greylock, USA Route 7, and New York State Route 2.</p><br>
<p>A portion of the historic footpath route, running through Florida, Savoy, and Charlemont, from the confluence of the Cold and Deerfield Rivers up the Cold River valley to Wheeler Brook, was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 3, 1973. This route, where the footpath itself is no longer extant in original form, is located on the north bank of the Cold River, with the modern roadway running along the south bank included in the listed area as an intrusion on the setting.</p><br>
<p>Fort Caspar was a military post of the United States Army in present-day Wyoming, named after 2nd Lieutenant Caspar Collins, a USA Army officer who was killed in the 1865 Battle of the Platte Bridge Station against the Lakota and Cheyenne. Founded in 1859 along the banks of the North Platte River as a trading post and toll bridge on the Oregon Trail, the post was later taken over by the Army and named Platte Bridge Station to protect emigrants and the telegraph line against raids from Lakota and Cheyenne in the ongoing wars between those nations and the United States. The site of the fort, near the intersection of 13th Street and Wyoming Boulevard in Casper, Wyoming, is listed in the National Register of Historic Places and is now owned and operated by the City of Casper as the Fort Caspar Museum and Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The area where Platte Bridge Station was located had been the site of various temporary Army encampments over a period of years before the establishment of the fort, or "station" itself. The fort was located on the south side of the North Platte, near the western edge of present-day Casper, at one several local points where the Emigrant Trail crossed from the south side to the north side of the river. In 1847, during the first Mormon wagon train to present-day Utah, Brigham Young commissioned a ferry at the site for later emigrants. The ferry consisted of cottonwood dugout canoes and planking for a deck, with two oars and a rudder. On June 19, Young named nine men to remain to operate the ferry while the remainder of the party continued the journey westward. A group of Mormons returned to the site each summer between 1847 and 1852 to operate the ferry. The ferry was moved to a different spot on the North Platte in North Casper in 1849. It was eventually replaced with a rope-and-pulley system that could make the crossing in five minutes.</p><br>
<p>In following years, trader John Baptiste Richard established a trading post several miles downriver of the crossing. The USA Army established its first presence in the area in 1855, erecting Fort Clay near Richard&#39;s trading post. In 1859, when the site was part of the Nebraska Territory, Louis Guinard built a competing bridge at the trading post, called the Platte Bridge Station, at the site of the old Mormon Ferry crossing. From 1860 to 1861, the Pony Express operated a station at the site.</p><br>
<p>By the middle 1860s, the increasing presence of emigrants and other white settlers in the region began to cause friction with the Lakota and Cheyenne. In response, and partly to protect the new telegraph line, the Army began increasing its presence in the region in 1861 by sending a detachment to guard Guinard&#39;s bridge. Many of these troops, who created a series of "stations" along the Oregon trail, were from various state units raised during the Civil War. In 1862 the Army used the buildings at Platte Bridge station while building and occupying Ft. Caspar.</p><br>
<p>Guinard, a naturalized USA citizen, born in Quebec around 1820 or 1821 had hired his nephew of the same name - Louis P. Guinard, also born in Quebec in 1840 - to come and help build this bridge. Louis P. came and worked for his uncle about three years, becoming a naturalized USA citizen in 1863. He worked on the actual building of the bridge as well as keeping his uncles financial records. Louis Guinard the uncle, fell from the bridge on June 6, 1865 and drowned, leaving the property to his nephew Louis P. Guinard, who took possession on July 15 of 1865. The will was discovered in 1866 and Louis P Guinard stated that he was advised by Major Bullock, sutler at Ft. Laramie, that the will left him as sole owner of the property and that he should remain and hold possession of it. The USA troops occupied Guinards buildings for three years during the Civil War. Louis P. Guinard stated that one of the officers promised him $1000 for use of the said buildings but he never received any payment. The bridge was later destroyed by Indians when the troops left in 1865, and with hundreds of Indians appearing on the opposite bank of the river, Guinard felt he had no choice but to leave for the protection of himself and his family. They had gone no more than 4 or 5 miles before he could tell from the smoke columns that the Indians were burning everything. Guinard had left his will in the safekeeping of Major Bullock at Ft. Laramie, having no way at the time to get it probated or secured in a bank. He later filed claim to be compensated for Indian depredations but Major Bullock told him the will was lost or destroyed. Unable to produce the will, the case dragged on in the courts for more than 25 years before it was finally abandoned and Guinard was never compensated for his losses.</p><br>
<h3>Battle of the Platte Bridge Station</h3><br>
<p>In July 1865, accompanied by survivors of the Sand Creek Massacre which occurred the previous November as part of the Colorado War, a party of several thousand Cheyenne and Sioux approached Platte Bridge Station from the north intending to attack the soldiers camped there and destroy the 1,000 ft bridge. They had previously scouted the area and selected it because the soldiers there were not in the small trading post stockade of 14-foot pine logs but camped in tents. Initially only a small party of Indians showed themselves to the troops, the remainder of the Indians remaining concealed. By the afternoon of July 25, however, when a large raiding party had driven off a number of horses and forced the pursuing cavalry troopers to expend much ammunition, the station had permanent structures and a mountain howitzer of the 11th Ohio Cavalry covered the approaches to the bridge.</p><br>
<p>Late that night a detachment of 14 men of Company I, 3rd USA Volunteer Infantry led by Capt. Adam Smith Leib, escorted by 1st Lt. Henry C. Bretney and six (some accounts say 10) troopers of Company G, 11th Ohio Volunteer Cavalry, arrived from Sweetwater Station en route to Fort Laramie for supplies and a long-overdue payroll. They found the station on 50% guard duty and molding bullets. Leib advised the station commander, Major Martin Anderson of the 11th Kansas Cavalry, that he had earlier passed a small train of five empty mule-drawn wagons returning from Sweetwater to Laramie, 14 teamsters escorted by 11 enlisted men of the 11th Kansas. Knowing that the train was due to come in the next morning, the officers at the post discussed sending out a relief force to drive off the Cheyenne and Lakota warriors, so that the wagon train could come safely in. Leib and Bretney suggested an immediate march but Anderson decided to wait for daylight. Bretney, who had succeeded to command of Company G on February 13 when its captain, Levi M. Rinehart, had been accidentally killed by a drunken trooper during a skirmish, was not on good terms with Anderson. On his arrival at Platte Bridge on July 16, the Kansan had replaced Bretney as post commander and ordered Company G to relocate to Sweetwater Station, escorting the same wagon train now returning from there. In addition, the 11th Kansas Cavalry was due to march to Fort Kearney on or about August 1 to muster out of service.</p><br>
<p>After reveille, all four of Andersons officers declined to lead the relief force and some placed themselves on the sick list to avoid the duty. 20-year-old 2nd Lt. Caspar W. Collins of Company G 11th Ohio Volunteer Cavalry, en route back to his company farther west from a remount detail at Fort Laramie, had arrived the afternoon before with the mail ambulance and was ordered by Anderson to lead the relief. Bretney had no authority to countermand the order but advised Collins to refuse it. Instead Collins borrowed Bretneys pistols and was given a mount from the regimental band. Among those leading the Indian warriors were Red Cloud and the famed warrior Roman Nose. George Bent, the half Cheyenne son of William Bent who survived the Sand Creek Massacre, participated in the battle as a Cheyenne warrior, and later wrote about it in his letters.</p><br>
<p>At dawn numerous Indians were observed by sentinels on the surrounding hills observing the station. At 7:00 a.m. a larger force forded the river east of the station and rode just out of rifle range, taunting the garrison. Collins and a small detachment of 25 men of the 11th Kansas crossed the Platte Bridge at a walk, then formed into a column of fours and rode west along the north bank at a trot to drive off any hostile Indians. Behind him, the contingent of the 3rd USAV.I. and its 11th Ohio Volunteer Cavalry escort crossed the bridge on foot as a support force for Collins, forming a skirmish line when they observed several hundred Cheyenne emerge from the sand hills and gulleys between themselves and Collins.</p><br>
<p>The Indians had concealed large bands of warriors near the bridge and over the crest of the hills, possibly as many as a thousand Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho. The battle lasted only a few minutes, with Bent claiming that the Lakota and Cheyenne suffered only a few casualties.</p><br>
<p>Bretney in a rage returned to the stockade and accused the Kansas officers of cowardice when Anderson refused to allow a larger force and the howitzer to attempt another relief. Anderson placed Bretney under arrest and turned over the post&#39;s defenses to Leib, who had the garrison throw up an embrasure and dig rifle pits to protect the howitzer at the south end of the bridge. During the morning the attacking force destroyed a thousand feet of telegraph wire on the line to Fort Laramie before Anderson thought to request reinforcements, then drove off the detail sent to repair it, killing another trooper.</p><br>
<p>The wagon train, commanded by Sergeant Amos J. Custard, was attacked approximately five miles to the west, within sight of the station, at around 11:00 a.m. According to the Indians the battle lasted about half an hour with one person escaping, a teamster, 22 troopers killed along with 8 Indian warriors. Many Indian warriors were wounded. The Indians, as was their custom, took no prisoners. However Army accounts state that the wagons were forced into a hollow where they held out for four hours, using fire from Spencer rifles to repel assaults until a large group closed on foot and overwhelmed the defenders, killing all. The wagons were burned at approximately 3:00 p.m. Corporal James A. Shrader and four troopers, sent as scouts by Custard to investigate the sound of the howitzer firing, were cut off and pursued by a hundred Cheyenne led by the brother of Roman Nose, Left Hand, who was killed in the running fight. Eventually Shrader and two men made their way on foot into the station. Two Shoshone scouts were paid to take a message requesting reinforcements to the next telegraph station east, but the attacking force broke up before relief arrived.</p><br>
<p>The battle became known as the Battle of Platte Bridge Station. The battle of the wagon train also became known as the Battle of Red Buttes, although that location was ten miles further to the west. Army fatalities in both actions numbered 27 men of the 11th Kansas Cavalry and Lt. Collins, with at least ten seriously wounded. Historian Robert Utley placed combined Indian casualties in all the July forays around Platte Bridge Station as 60 killed and 130 wounded. The Army officially renamed the post Fort Caspar to honor Collins, using his given name to differentiate the post from an existing fort in Colorado named after Collins&#39; father.</p><br>
<h3>Abandonment</h3><br>
<p>The fort was abandoned two years later in August 1867, with the garrison moved to Fort Fetterman at Douglas, Wyoming.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration and Museum</h3><br>
<p>Fort Caspar was partially reconstructed in 1936 using sketches made by Lieutenant Collins in 1863. The fort itself underwent a lot of changes during its occupation, and the current recreation reflects the post in 1863-1865. The City of Casper now operates a museum at the site, which features reconstructed log buildings, including a wooden stockade. The site also includes a replica of the Mormon ferry that was operated there between 1847 and 1849, as well as a model of part of the bridge that later replaced the ferry. In early December members of a living history group portraying a company of the 3rd US Infantry host a historical reenactment at the site.</p><br>
<p>Fort McIntosh was a USA Army base in Laredo, Webb County, Texas, from 1849 to 1946.</p><br>
<p>Fort McIntosh was established on 3 March 1849 by the 1st US Infantry, under the command of Lt. E.L. Viele, to guard the Texas frontier at the site of a strategic river crossing. Originally named Camp Crawford, the fort was renamed Fort McIntosh in 1850 in honor of Lieutenant Colonel James Simmons McIntosh, a hero in the Battle of Molino del Rey during the Mexican–American War.</p><br>
<p>The fort was abandoned by Federal troops at the outbreak of the American Civil War. The Battle of Laredo took place near the fort on March 19, 1864, when 72 men repelled three attacks from a force of 200 federal soldiers sent from Brownsville, Texas. On October 23, 1865, the post was reoccupied by federal troops of the 2nd Texas Cavalry.</p><br>
<p>In the late 19th century, several African-American units among them the 10th Cavalry, the "Buffalo Soldiers", were stationed at Fort McIntosh. Other forts in the frontier fort system were Forts Griffin, Concho, Belknap, Chadbourne, Stockton, Davis, Bliss, McKavett, Clark, Richardson, Inge, and Phantom Hill in Texas, and Fort Sill in Oklahoma. Thesystem had "subposts or intermediate stations" including Bothwick&#39;s Station on Salt Creek between Fort Richardson and Fort Belknap, Camp Wichita near Buffalo Springs between Fort Richardson and Red River Station, and Mountain Pass between Fort Concho and Fort Griffin.</p><br>
<p>During World War I, the fort was used as a training base, and had over 15,000 recruits pass</p><br>
<p>through the gates. During World War II, the 8th Service Command, the 56th Cavalry Brigade, the Southern Land Frontier, the Civil Air Patrol, and battalion of military police all were stationed at the facility at one time or another.</p><br>
<p>The fort was deactivated in 1946, and the land is now part of the campus of Laredo Community College main campus.</p><br>
<p>The Laredo United States Army Reserve 340th Quarter Master Company is located within the fort.</p><br>
<h2>National Register of Historic Places</h2><br>
<p>The National Register of Historic Places added Fort McIntosh (#75002011) to its registered historic districts in 1975. Its areas of historic significance are its 1850-1924 Late Victorian Architecture and Military background. All of Fort McIntosh buildings have been preserved and remodeled, and today they serve as educational buildings for Laredo Community College. The former officers barracks has been renovated into Arechiga Hall, named for the third LCC president, Domingo Arechiga.</p><br>
<h2>Aerial view</h2><br>
<p>Hanover Square in downtown Syracuse is actually a triangle at the intersection of Warren, Water, and East Genesee Streets. The name may also refer to the larger Hanover Square Historic District which includes seventeen historic buildings in the area that was the first commercial district in Syracuse. In the warm weather months, entertainment is common on the plaza around the fountain. Workers in the surrounding office buildings and retail establishments often lunch there.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>When Syracuse was still a village, the village well was located in Hanover Square. Listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1976, the square is an intact, mainly nineteenth century historic district. The buildings on Water Street were backed by the Erie Canal, and were known as “double-enders.” This facilitated the unloading of goods from barges on the canal. Civil War recruiting booths were set up in the square, and were made into a huge bonfire at the end of the war.</p><br>
<h2>Hanover Square Historic District contributing Properties</h2><br>
<p>The 17 properties can be visited in order, starting at South Salina Street and Water Street, going east on Water Street, turning south on Warren Street, and returning on the diagonal along East Genesee Street to Water.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>In addition to modern businesses, eateries and stores, loft-style apartments have been created on the upper floors of some of Hanover Square&#39;s historic buildings.</p><br>
<p>The 23-floor State Tower Building overlooking the square hosts offices and is a major telecommunications hub for downtown Syracuse.</p><br>
<p>Castle Clinton  is a restored circular sandstone fort within Battery Park at the southern end of Manhattan in New York City, United States. Built from 1808 to 1811, it was the first American immigration station, predating Ellis Island. More than 7.5 million people arrived in the United States at Fort Clinton between 1855 and 1890. Over its active life, it has also functioned as a beer garden, exhibition hall, theater, and public aquarium. The structure is a New York City designated landmark and a USA national monument, and it is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Fort Clinton was originally known as the West Battery or the Southwest Battery, occupying an artificial island off the shore of Lower Manhattan. Designed by John McComb Jr., with Jonathan Williams as consulting engineer, the fort was garrisoned in 1812 but was never used for warfare. In 1824, the New York City government converted Fort Clinton into a 6,000-seat entertainment venue known as Castle Garden, which operated until 1855. Castle Garden then served as an immigrant processing depot for 35 years. When the processing facilities were moved to Ellis Island in 1892, Castle Garden was converted into the first home of the New York Aquarium, which opened in 1896 and continued operating until 1941. The fort was expanded and renovated several times during this period.</p><br>
<p>In the 1940s, New York City parks commissioner Robert Moses proposed demolishing Fort Clinton as part of the construction of the nearby Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel. This led to a prolonged debate over the fort&#39;s preservation, as well as the creation of the Castle Clinton National Monument in 1946. The National Park Service took over the fort in 1950. After several unsuccessful attempts to restore the fort, Castle Clinton reopened in 1975 following an extensive renovation. Since 1986, it has served as a visitor center and a departure point for ferries to the Statue of Liberty National Monument.</p><br>
<h2>Original use</h2><br>
<p>Castle Clinton stands slightly west of where Fort Amsterdam was built in 1626, when New York City was known by the Dutch name New Amsterdam. Fort Amsterdam was demolished by 1790 after the American Revolutionary War. Proposals for a new fort were made after two separate war scares involving Britain and France in the 1790s, but neither plan was ultimately carried out. By 1805, there were growing tensions between Britain and the USA, marking the run-up to the War of 1812. Late that year, Lieutenant Colonel Jonathan Williams of the United States Army Engineers began planning a series of fortifications in New York Harbor. Williams was part of a group of three commissioners who, in 1807, submitted a report that recommended the construction of such fortifications.</p><br>
<p>Fort Clinton, originally known as West Battery and sometimes as Southwest Battery, was built on an artificial island, created just off shore when the fort was built. although modifications continued through the 1820s. Designed by John McComb Jr. with Jonathan Williams as consulting engineer, West Battery was roughly circular with a radius of approximately 92 ft. About one-eighth of the circle had a straight wall instead of a curved wall. The fort had 28 thirty-two-pounder cannons.</p><br>
<p>The fort was completed in late 1811, and it was garrisoned in 1812. However, the fort was never used for warfare, The Common Council of New York proposed in May 1820 that the United States government transfer ownership of the castle to the city government, but the United States Congress declined to pass legislation to that effect.</p><br>
<p>By 1820, Fort Clinton was being used as a paymaster&#39;s quarters and storage area. The United States Army stopped using the fort in 1821, and it was ceded to the city by an act of Congress in March 1822. By then, the bridge leading to Fort Clinton was frequently used by fishermen who were catching fish from the bridge,</p><br>
<h2>Entertainment venue</h2><br>
<p>The fort was leased to the New York City government as an entertainment venue in June 1824; The city government subleased the fort to Francis Fitch, Arthur Roorbach, and J. Rathbone. One critic described Castle Garden in 1828 as "a favored place of public resort".</p><br>
<p>The fort reopened as Castle Garden on July 3, 1824. Over the years, the fort hosted other political figures such as USA presidents Andrew Jackson, John Tyler, Around 1845, Castle Garden was converted into a theater when a roof was built above the fort&#39;s interior. The structure contained 6,000 seats.</p><br>
<p>In 1850, Swedish soprano Jenny Lind gave her first performances in the United States with two concerts at Castle Gardens; tickets for these concerts cost up to $225. A year later, Castle Garden started selling concert tickets at "popular prices" of up to 50 cents. In the early 1850s, European dancing star Lola Montez performed her "tarantula dance", and Louis-Antoine Jullien gave dozens of successful concerts mixing classical and light music.</p><br>
<p>The fort was leased to Theodore J. Allen for five years on May 1, 1854. Under the terms of the lease, Allen could expand the island around Castle Garden, but he could not infill the channel between Castle Garden and Battery Park.</p><br>
<h2>Immigrant landing and registration depot</h2><br>
<p>Castle Garden served as the first immigration depot in the USA from 1855 to 1890. Most of the fort, except for the section along the shoreline, was surrounded by a 1,000 ft wooden fence. The fence, measuring 12 or high, was intended to keep out unauthorized immigrants. At the center of the fort was the waiting area, known as the rotunda. The immigrant registration depot included a quadrangle of desks arranged around this waiting area, as well as restrooms flanking the main entrance. The waiting area also had wooden benches. Although there are no precise figures for the capacity of the waiting area, various sources give a capacity of between 2,000 and 4,000. An enclosed balcony was installed around the waiting area circa 1869. The residential outbuildings around the fort became offices.</p><br>
<p>Before being processed at Castle Garden, immigrants underwent medical inspections at the Marine Hospital on Staten Island, where ill immigrants were quarantined. Those who passed their medical inspection boarded a steamship, which traveled to a dock along the northern side of Castle Garden; the dock faced away from Battery Park, preventing immigrants from entering Manhattan before they had been processed. Immigrants were inspected a second time before entering the fort. Inside the depot, a New York state emigration clerk registered each immigrant and directed them to another desk, where a second clerk advised each immigrant about their destination. Each of the immigrants then received a bottle of bathwater and returned to the dock, where their baggage was collected. The New York Central Railroad and the New York and Erie Railroad sold train tickets at Castle Garden as well.</p><br>
<p>Many of Castle Gardens original immigrant passenger records were stored at Ellis Island, where they were destroyed in a fire in 1897. Sources cite 7.5 million or 8 million immigrants as having been processed at Castle Garden. These account for the vast majority of the nearly 10 million immigrants who passed through the Port of New York between 1847 and 1890. The majority of immigrants processed at Castle Garden were from European countries, namely Denmark, England, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Russia, Scotland, and Sweden. The facilitys name was pronounced Kesselgarten by German immigrants and by Yiddish-speaking Eastern European Jews. The word kesselgarten became a generic term for any situation that was noisy, confusing or chaotic, or where a "babel" of languages was spoken (a reference to the multitude of languages heard spoken by the immigrants from many countries at the site). In 2005, The New York Times estimated that one-sixth of all Americans were descended from an immigrant who had passed through Castle Garden.</p><br>
<h3>Conversion and operation</h3><br>
<h4>1850s and 1860s</h4><br>
<p>The New York state governments Board of Emigration Commissioners had been established in 1847 to operate medical facilities and a registration center for immigrants. Although the board had acquired the Marine Hospital on Staten Island soon after its establishment, their efforts to open a registration center were unsuccessful for several years. Prior to the establishment of the registration center, unethical ticket-booking agents for transport lines frequently approached newly arrived immigrants, only to abscond with the immigrants savings. Several local residents attempted to prevent the fort from being converted into an immigrant registration depot, claiming that the state governments lease was illegal and that the newly arrived immigrants would spread disease. A judge for the states Superior Court ruled in June 1855 that work on the immigrant-processing depot could proceed.</p><br>
<p>The Emigrant Landing Depot opened within the fort on August 1, 1855, and the depot began processing immigrants two days later. The identity of the first migrant processed at the fort is unknown. Of the first five ships to arrive at Castle Garden, English laborer Richard Richards was the first person on the manifest of the largest ship. Many complaints about Castle Garden came from "runners" representing booking agents and boarding house operators, who could not intercept unwitting immigrants because of Castle Gardens strict policies. The New York state governments initial four-year lease of Castle Garden expired in 1859, and state officials renewed their lease annually for the next ten years. By then, state and city officials could not agree on who owned the depot. The city, state, and federal governments continued to fight over the depot&#39;s ownership through the 1870s.</p><br>
<p>Although Castle Garden staff often mistreated immigrants, historian George J. Svejda wrote that the depot "was still the best place for immigrants upon their landing on Americas shores". Two years later, the Board of Emigration Commissioners constructed a one-story labor exchange building, a waiting room, and an information office, and they made repairs to Castle Garden. The forts exterior remained largely unchanged over the years, but the interior and many of the fort&#39;s wooden outbuildings were frequently renovated. at which point the island containing Castle Garden was incorporated into the rest of Manhattan Island.</p><br>
<h4>1870s and 1880s</h4><br>
<p>By the early 1870s, Castle Gardens information bureau employed staff members who could speak over a dozen languages. The New York state government encouraged immigrants to use other ports of entry to reduce overcrowding, so it issued a head tax on every immigrant who passed through Castle Garden. This measure was largely ineffective, as The New York Times wrote in 1874: "Castle Garden is so well known in Europe that few emigrants can be induced to sail to any other destination." By then, the immigration depot was in poor condition, with rotting floors and "tottering" offices and benches. The Board of Emigration Commissioners lost a significant source of income in 1875, when the Supreme Court of the United States invalidated a New York state law that required steamship companies to pay a head tax or put up a bond for each immigrant. Afterward, the commissioners sought funding from the state legislature. Due to budgetary shortfalls, the Emigration Commissioners disbanded the labor bureau in 1875, although the German and Irish Emigrant Societies took over the labor bureaus operation.</p><br>
<p>The structure was severely damaged in a fire on July 30, 1876. Castle Gardens exterior remained intact, as did the outbuildings to the north of the fort, but the interior was completely destroyed. Nonetheless, the New York state government awarded a contract for Castle Gardens reconstruction in September 1876, and it reopened on November 27, 1876. As part of the $30,000 project, officials installed windows in the embrasures along the facade, and they added two doorways. After the nearby Barge Office was completed in 1879, immigrants disembarked at the Barge Office, where officers examined immigrants&#39; baggage. The baggage-collection duties soon returned to Castle Garden, and the Barge Office became a storage area.</p><br>
<p>New York state officials unsuccessfully attempted to reinstate a head tax at Castle Garden in 1881. The following year, Congress passed the Immigration Act of 1882, which imposed a head tax on non-USA citizens who passed through American ports, as well as restricted certain classes of people from immigrating to America. Under the 1882 act, the Emigration Commissioners earned 50 cents for each immigrant who passed through Castle Garden. The Immigration Act of 1882 also prompted a jurisdictional dispute between the city, state, and federal governments. For example, in 1885, the state government refused to allocate $10,000 for repairs to the depot&#39;s ferry dock because the city technically owned Castle Garden.</p><br>
<h3>Closure</h3><br>
<p>By the late 1880s, Castle Garden had become overcrowded and unhygienic, and there were numerous reports that Castle Garden officials were mistreating immigrants. Robert Chesebrough, a businessman who owned several structures around Battery Park, had also advocated for the closure of the Castle Garden processing depot. The Chicago Daily Tribune wrote that the structure was "a dilapidated rotunda surrounded by equally ramshackle structures for the housing of the strangers on these shores". Federal and state officials also had difficulty sharing jurisdiction of Castle Garden; state officials reportedly did not enforce federal laws, as it was not part of their duties.</p><br>
<p>The federal government notified New York state officials in February 1890 that it would take over immigrant-processing duties at Castle Garden within sixty days. Federal officials planned to construct a new immigrant-processing center at another location, ultimately selecting a site on Ellis Island. Castle Garden closed on April 18, 1890, The immigrant-processing center was temporarily relocated to the Barge Office. The state&#39;s Commissioners of Emigration had forbidden the federal government to continue to use Castle Garden until the Ellis Island immigrant depot was completed. The new registration office on Ellis Island was completed in 1892. In its last year of operation, Castle Garden processed 450,394 travelers, 364,086 of whom were immigrants. When the immigrant-registration depot closed, city officials contemplated converting Castle Garden into an "amusement resort".</p><br>
<p>The New York state government formally transferred Castle Garden to the city government on December 31, 1890. By the next year, city officials had removed the wooden fence around Castle Garden, and they were planning to demolish the various outbuildings around the fort. The New York Naval Reserve&#39;s First Battalion considered relocating to Castle Garden at that time, and it subsequently used Castle Garden as a drill hall during the early 1890s.</p><br>
<h2>Aquarium</h2><br>
<p>Castle Garden was the site of the New York City Aquarium from 1896 to 1941. When the fort was converted into an aquarium, the adjacent section of Battery Park was extended into the Hudson River.</p><br>
<p>The aquarium could accommodate 10,000 fish and other species. Fish and other marine species were loaded into the aquarium through a doorway at one end of the fort. The perimeter of the aquarium was originally surrounded by about 100 tanks of varying sizes, placed on two levels. The tanks were up to 6 ft deep, with 1 in plate-glass panes and white-tiled surfaces. By 1907, there were seven large tanks at the center of the ground story, 94 large tanks and 26 smaller tanks on the walls, and 30 reserve tanks. The tanks were supplied by fresh water from the New York City water supply system and salt water from the Hudson River. Salt water passed through two bronze filters, while fresh water passed through two copper filters; the four filters could collectively process over 200,000 gal per day.</p><br>
<h3>Conversion and opening</h3><br>
<p>The New York City government had proposed converting Castle Garden into an aquarium in 1891. The following February, the New York State Legislature passed a bill allowing the city government to create an aquarium within Castle Garden. Julius F. Munckwitz Jr. drew up preliminary plans for an aquarium, which he presented to New York Citys board of park commissioners in mid-1892. The state government voted to allocate $150,000 for the construction of an aquarium within Castle Garden. The aquariums architect of record, H. T. Woodman, reported in April 1894 that several of the tanks were ready for use. During the renovation process, the architect alleged that the tiles in the tanks had not been installed properly, which led to a protracted dispute. The city government allocated another $25,000 for the aquarium&#39;s completion at the end of 1894.</p><br>
<p>The aquarium was supposed to have been completed by mid-1894, For instance, the skylights on the roof acted as a greenhouse that raised the temperature of the water in the tanks, and the saltwater fish in the aquarium were dying off because of the low salinity of the Hudson River. The Tribune estimated that these mistakes had increased the project&#39;s cost by $35,000. At the time, the tanks contained 45 species, some of which had been in the aquarium for two years. Ultimately, it cost $175,000 to renovate Castle Garden into an aquarium.</p><br>
<p>The aquarium opened on December 10, 1896, following a soft opening the previous day. The aquarium attracted thousands of visitors on its opening day, The aquarium had two million guests within a year,</p><br>
<h3>1900s to 1930s</h3><br>
<p>In March 1902, New York state legislators proposed transferring operation of the New York Aquarium to the New York Zoological Society. City officials had suggested the idea to remove political interference from the aquariums operation. The New York City Board of Estimate authorized mayor Seth Low to lease the aquarium to the Zoological Society in July 1902, and the Zoological Society took over on October 31, 1902, with Charles Haskins Townsend as the aquariums director. as well as reconfiguring each of the tanks pipes to reduce energy usage. The Zoological Society added a classroom next to the fort, The organization also repainted the interior for the first time in Castle Gardens history. The Zoological Society installed new pipes at Castle Garden in 1908.</p><br>
<p>Meanwhile, by the early 20th century, city officials were planning to rebuild Battery Park, and they considered replacing Castle Garden with a skyscraper. By January 1911, officials instead planned to expand Castle Garden, adding semicircular wings to the west and east for over $1 million. Each wing was to contain three tiers of tanks The Zoological Society asked the Board of Estimate to allocate $1.75 million to the renovation, but the board still had not funded the renovation of Castle Garden by 1916. according to Townsend, the mechanical equipment under the fort was flooded at high tide, and power was provided by coal bunkers, which had to be manually replenished every four days. In addition, the fort had never been properly renovated for the aquariums use, and the second storys wooden frame was flammable. Townsend said the annexes would not only provide additional exhibition space but also allow the mechanical facilities to be upgraded.</p><br>
<p>In 1921, Townsend announced that the Zoological Society would spend $75,000 to construct an electric plant in the basement, replacing a steam plant on the south side of the fort, and then install two tanks in the space formerly occupied by the steam plant. This work was funded by a bequest from Mrs. Russell Sage. The same year, a bust of Jenny Lind was dedicated and installed at the center of the fort. The Board of Estimate voted in December 1921 to provide $105,000 for the construction of an additional story atop the fort. By early 1923, the Zoological Society was carrying out the renovations at a cost of $86,000. In June 1923, the board voted to give $76,500 for the construction of an additional story above the fort. The Zoological Society planned to add deeper tanks on the second floor, expanding exhibition space by 20 percent. By then, the aquarium had two million annual visitors.</p><br>
<p>Townsend announced in 1926 that Castle Garden would undergo further modifications at a cost of $225,000. The plans included constructing a third story for workrooms and laboratory space, installing tanks behind the fort, adding a new mechanical plant in the basement, and covering the facade with a gray cement finish. Several local residents expressed opposition to these modifications and created the Battery Park Association to advocate against the plans. By the late 1920s, there were plans to reconstruct Battery Park into a formal vista. As part of this plan, an amphitheater would have been constructed in the southern end of Battery Park, complementing Castle Garden at the northern end. The Castle Garden Aquarium remained popular in the 1930s, with two million visitors per year. Two laboratories were built on the structures third story in 1940, and a new metal dome was installed above the fort the same year. By then, the aquariums acting director Charles M. Breder Jr. wished to develop a new building nearby, as he believed the aquarium had outgrown Castle Garden.</p><br>
<h2>Demolition attempts and preservation</h2><br>
<h3>Initial plans</h3><br>
<p>In February 1941, Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority Commissioner Robert Moses announced that he would demolish Castle Garden when the park was rebuilt during the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnels construction. He justified the demolition by saying that the fort had poor lighting and ventilation and that it required extensive repairs. he continued to advocate the forts preservation for nine years. Moses opposed efforts to preserve Castle Garden, saying that the old fort "never fired a shot". The city government closed the New York Aquarium and moved some fish and turtles to other aquariums in late 1941; other fish were released into the Atlantic Ocean. A new aquarium was ultimately built on Coney Island in 1957.</p><br>
<p>Moses presented plans for a reconstruction of Battery Park to the Board of Estimate in March 1942, in which the fort was to be replaced by a landscaped promenade. The board voted in favor of removing the fort from Battery Park that June. City officials quickly placed the fort for sale, allowing potential buyers to preserve the fort by relocating it, but the officials rejected the sole bid from a Brooklyn junkyard operator who offered $1,120. The Fine Arts Federation of New York held an architectural design competition in August 1942, soliciting plans for a renovation of Castle Garden. Despite ongoing disputes over the forts fate, The forts original door, attached to the wall using 768 iron bolts, was also removed.</p><br>
<p>An engineer hired by Moses to conduct a structural survey of Fort Clinton reported a "pronounced vertical crack" on the fort&#39;s walls. Preservationists asked a New York state judge to grant an injunction to prevent demolition, but a judge declined the request in April 1943. Preservationists again petitioned the Board of Estimate to preserve the building, but the board voted in October 1945 to demolish the fort.</p><br>
<h3>Preservation as national monument</h3><br>
<p>Albert S. Bard, Walter D. Binger, and other civic reformers continued to advocate in favor of preserving the fort. In July 1946, USA representative Sol Bloom introduced a bill to designate Castle Garden as a USA national monument. Both the House and the Senate approved the legislation, and president Harry S. Truman signed the bill into law on August 12, 1946, enabling the United States Department of the Interior to determine whether to take over the fort. Engineers estimated that it would cost between $40,000 and $100,000 to preserve the fort while the Brooklyn–Battery Tunnel was being constructed. The city government would only retain the fort if the federal government agreed to pay for its restoration, though Moses did suggest constructing a monument on the site. After the United States Congress declined to allocate funding for Fort Clinton&#39;s renovation, the Board of Estimate voted yet again to demolish the fort in July 1947. Some demolition work did take place, but the structure was not totally demolished due to a lack of funding.</p><br>
<p>After Interior undersecretary Oscar L. Chapman indicated in August 1947 that Congress would allocate money to the project in 1948, the board voted to delay further action for one year. In the meantime, the city allocated $50,000 to shore up the forts southeastern corner while the tunnel was being built. In March 1948, a New York State Assembly committee refused to vote on a bill that would have allowed the federal government to take over Fort Clinton. Two months later, the Board of Estimate voted to demolish the castle for the sixth time. The American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society continued to advocate for the forts preservation, asking the New York Supreme Court to restrict the city from demolishing Fort Clinton in July 1948. The state Supreme Court issued an injunction that December, requiring the New York City Art Commission to approve any proposal to demolish the fort, but the Supreme Court&#39;s Appellate Division struck down this injunction in March 1949.</p><br>
<p>By early 1949, USA president Harry S. Truman had also expressed support for preserving Fort Clinton. The Assembly voted in March 1949 to cede the fort to the federal government, and the New York State Senate passed an identical bill. New York governor Thomas E. Dewey signed the bill the next month, allowing the city to transfer the fort to the federal government. Separately, the New York City Council voted to allow the New York state government to take over Fort Clinton if the federal government did not want to take over ownership. The USA House voted in October to allocate $165,750 for the forts restoration, allowing the National Park Service (NPS) to start restoring the fort after the federal government gained ownership. The citys mayor William ODwyer supported the forts preservation, but, due to legal technicalities, the city government did not transfer ownership of the fort for several months.</p><br>
<h2>Federal government ownership</h2><br>
<p>The modern-day Castle Clinton is a one-story structure with a radius of 92 ft. The roof above the forts interior has largely been removed, and there is a nearly circular, open-air parade ground at the center of the fort. It is surrounded by a wall measuring 8 ft thick. The stucco on the facade was removed under the National Park Services ownership, and the brownstone-and-ashlar exterior walls were restored to their original condition. Underneath the walls is a rough stone foundation. The circumference of the fort contains a portico with wooden columns surrounding a canopy. There is also a gravel courtyard, brick powder magazines, and two subterranean water tanks covered by wooden trapdoors. The SeaGlass Carousel is just southeast of the modern-day fort.</p><br>
<p>Since 1986, the fort&#39;s interior has housed an information kiosk and ticket booths for the Statue of Liberty National Monument, which comprises the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island; Admission to Castle Clinton itself is free, and the National Park Service gives guided tours when the monument is open to the public. The nonprofit Battery Conservancy is also housed within Castle Clinton. According to the NPS, Castle Clinton typically has over three million visitors a year, making it one of the most visited national monuments in the United States.</p><br>
<h3>Restoration</h3><br>
<p>The Castle Clinton National Monument was formally dedicated on October 24, 1950. Battery Park reopened to the public two years later, although Castle Clinton had not yet been restored at the time. The NPS announced in early 1952 that it would begin restoring the forts exterior; the project was expected to cost $117,000 and take two years. As part of this project, the NPS reconstructed the forts original door. Following the partial demolition of Fort Clinton in the 1940s, only the exterior wall remained intact. The interior of the fort was so dilapidated that, according to The New York Times, "not even grass grew in the desolate, cratered parade ground".</p><br>
<p>In 1954, the New York City Council passed a resolution asking Congress to establish a committee to provide suggestions for restoring Castle Clinton, the Federal Hall National Memorial, and the Statue of Liberty National Monument. The next year, the federal government created the New York City National Shrines Advisory Board. The board first convened in February 1956, and the federal government allocated $498,500 that July for a renovation of Castle Clinton. In February 1957, the board recommended allocating $3 million for the restoration of the three sites. The United States Department of the Interior subsequently postponed the repair project to 1966. This led architect Frederick G. Frost Jr. to propose in 1958 that the fort be renovated for use as a maritime museum and a restaurant. This never happened, and the columns were instead dumped in a landfill in New Jersey.</p><br>
<p>Castle Clinton was one of the earliest buildings that the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC) considered protecting as a New York City landmark. The LPC designated the fort as a city landmark in November 1965, seven months after the city&#39;s landmarks law was signed. Subsequently, Castle Clinton was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966, the day the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 went into effect.</p><br>
<p>A restoration of Castle Clinton commenced in August 1968. This renovation was supposed to last one year. The NPS commenced a wider-ranging restoration project 1972, which cost about $750,000. As part of this project, the officers quarters were restored, and an exhibit was placed inside a former powder magazine. The following June, the fort hosted its first concert since the 1850s, a performance commemorating Jenny Lind. Castle Clinton reopened on May 25, 1975, with a performance of Beethovens 9th by the American Symphony Orchestra. City and federal officials rededicated the monument the next month.</p><br>
<h3>Use as national monument</h3><br>
<h4>1970s to 1990s</h4><br>
<p>When it reopened, Castle Clinton hosted concerts for the public during summer weekends, The fort contained dioramas depicting Manhattan at various points in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1979, the NPS and the Manhattan Cultural Council commissioned four sculptures, which were installed within Castle Clinton&#39;s central courtyard. Following a series of thefts and break-ins at Castle Clinton in the early 1980s, the NPS stationed several armed guards outside the fort. In the decade after it was rededicated, the fort was open nine months a year, operating five days per week. NPS officials estimated that the fort had no more than 100,000 annual visitors.</p><br>
<p>The NPS closed Castle Clinton for renovations in December 1985. A ferry pier was also installed behind Castle Clinton. The fort reopened the weekend of July 4, 1986, as a visitor center and ticket office for the Statue of Liberty National Monument.</p><br>
<p>By 1996, the Conservancy for Historic Battery Park was raising $350,000 for a seasonal tensile structure, to be placed above the fort between April and October of each year. The conservancy wished to raise another $25 million to $30 million and convert Castle Clinton into an educational and cultural center. This was part of a $5.5 million renovation of the adjacent waterfront promenade within Battery Park, which was completed in November 2001, although the tensile structure was not installed. The Battery Park Conservancy had selected Thomas Phifer in 2001 to redesign Castle Clinton as a performing-arts center, but the redesign was stalled for several years.</p><br>
<h4>2000s to present</h4><br>
<p>The National Guard occupied Castle Clinton for six weeks after the September 11 attacks in 2001. Castle Clinton reopened to the public on October 22, 2001, though the ferries to the Statue of Liberty National Monument were not operating at the time. That December, the NPS erected a tent with seven body scanners at Castle Clinton, where visitors to the Statue of Liberty National Monument underwent a security screening. The facility could not handle large crowds, often resulting in waits of more than one hour. The NPS considered relocating the security-screening facilities to the nearby City Pier A in 2003 but decided against it. Although the security tent in front of Castle Clinton had been intended as a temporary measure, it remained in place for more than a decade., the screening facilities were located southeast of Castle Clinton.</p><br>
<p>During excavations for the nearby South Ferry station in late 2005, builders found the remains of a stone wall dating from the late 17th or 18th centuries. Workers subsequently found another wall under the site, and the NPS exhibited part of one of the walls inside Castle Clinton., Castle Clinton remains a visitor center and ticket office for the Statue of Liberty National Monument.</p><br>
<p>The Bunker Hill Monument is a monument erected at the site of the Battle of Bunker Hill in Boston, Massachusetts, which was among the first major battles between the United Colonies and the British Empire in the American Revolutionary War. The 221-foot  granite obelisk was erected between 1825 and 1843 in Charlestown, Massachusetts, with granite from nearby Quincy conveyed to the site via the purpose-built Granite Railway, followed by a trip by barge. There are 294 steps to the top.</p><br>
<p>An exhibit lodge built near the base of the monument in the late 19th century houses a statue of Joseph Warren. Bunker Hill is one of the sites along the Freedom Trail and is part of Boston National Historical Park.</p><br>
<p>The monument underwent a $3.7 million renovation, completed in 2007, that included repairs, handicap accessibility improvements, and new lighting. The Bunker Hill Museum across the street was dedicated in June of that year and includes many exhibits about the battle.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>The monument was one of the first in the United States. It is not on Bunker Hill, but instead on Breeds Hill, where most of the fighting in the misnamed Battle of Bunker Hill actually took place. An earlier memorial at the site, an 18 ft wooden column topped with a gilt urn, had been erected in memory of Joseph Warren, a Mason, in 1794 by King Solomons Lodge of Masons.</p><br>
<p>The Monument Association, which had purchased the entire battlefield site by 1825, was forced to sell off all but the summit of the hill in 1838 to cover the cost of completing the monument.</p><br>
<p>In front of the current obelisk is a statue of Col. William Prescott, a native of Groton, Massachusetts, who died during the battle. Some popular stories claim he coined the famous phrase "Don&#39;t fire until you see the whites of their eyes" during this battle; others have instead attributed it to Israel Putnam, John Stark, or Richard Gridley, rather than Prescott; but the main consensus is that none of them said it. In any case, no one at Bunker Hill could have coined the phrase; the idea behind it was already more than a hundred years old when this battle took place, and the modern phrasing of it had been used by British commanders Sir Andrew Agnew in the 1740s and James Wolfe in the 1750s, as well as by Prince Charles of Prussia in 1745, famously repeated in 1755 by Frederick the Great.</p><br>
<h2>Breed&#39;s Hill</h2><br>
<p>Breeds Hill is a glacial drumlin located in the Charlestown section of Boston, Massachusetts. It is located in the southern portion of the Charlestown Peninsula, a historically oval, but now more roughly triangular, peninsula that was originally connected to the mainland portion of Charlestown (now the separate city of Somerville) in colonial times by a short, narrow isthmus known as the Charlestown Neck. It is best known as the location where in 1775, early in the American Revolutionary War, most of the fighting in the Battle of Bunker Hill took place. In the 19th and early 20th centuries the peninsulas shape and connections to other landforms were significantly altered, with the waters of the Charles River between Cambridge and Charlestown heavily filled in. Much of the hill is now occupied by residential construction, but the summit area is the location of the Bunker Hill Monument and other memorials commemorating the battle.</p><br>
<p>The hill is about 62 ft high, and is topped by Monument Square, site of the Bunker Hill Monument. The hill slopes fairly steeply to the east and west. In addition to its historic sites and tourist-oriented facilities, the hill is the site of a great deal of residential property, as well as supporting municipal and retail infrastructure. It is about 700 yd from Bunker Hill.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Americans, having caught word of a British plan to fortify the Charlestown peninsula, decided to get to the peninsula first, fortify it, and present sufficient threat to cause the British to leave Boston. On June 16, 1775, under the leadership of General Putnam and Colonel Prescott, the Americans stole out onto the Charlestown Peninsula with instructions to establish defensive positions on the hills overlooking Boston.</p><br>
<p>A redoubt, a small and usually temporary defensive fortification, was constructed on nearby Breeds Hill, probably due to its closer proximity to Boston compared to Bunker Hill. The next morning, June 17, the British were astonished to see the rebel fortifications upon the hill and set out to reclaim the peninsula. The resulting conflict was called the Battle of Bunker Hill because that is where Prescott originally intended—and was ordered—to build the fortifications. Also, some people considered Breeds Hill a part of Bunker Hill, while others called it Charlestown Hill.</p><br>
<p>British soldiers under Howe sent 2,400 men to attack Breed&#39;s Hill. A force of 1,500 colonists held off two British Army attacks, but the third attack, by British Royal Marines, forced the rebels to retreat. 450 colonists were killed or wounded, compared to 1,150 British casualties.</p><br>
<p>In 1825, the Bunker Hill Monument Association began construction of the Bunker Hill Monument, acquiring 15 acre of land for the purpose.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>William Ticknor, a well-known Boston lawyer and antiquarian, first suggested that a memorial be built. An interested group of men met for breakfast at the home of Colonel Thomas Handasyd Perkins, including William Tudor, Daniel Webster, Professor George Ticknor, Doctor John C. Warren, William Sullivan, and George Blake. On May 10, 1823, the first public meeting was called. Each member subscribed five dollars, and on June 7, 1823, the Bunker Hill Monument Association was established and the work of raising money was begun. Famed nineteenth-century philanthropist Amos Lawrence contributed $10,000 to the monument&#39;s erection.</p><br>
<p>In the spring of 1825 the directors had purchased about 15 acre on the slope of Breed&#39;s Hill, but had not yet chosen a design. The first design committee consisted of Webster, noted engineer Loammi Baldwin Jr., George Ticknor, Gilbert Stuart, and Washington Allston. One hundred dollars was offered for the best design; about 50 plans were presented in response. Choice was soon narrowed to a column and an obelisk and a new committee was appointed to procure designs and estimate expenses for each. At the next meeting the majority voted that the obelisk designed by Solomon Willard be used.</p><br>
<p>The directors laid the cornerstone on June 17, 1825. The Marquis de Lafayette (who was on a 14-month tour of the United States on the 50th anniversary of the War) performed the ceremony, Webster delivered the oration, and the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Massachusetts, Ancient Free and Accepted Masons, conducted the services. Rev. Joseph Thaxter, who was wounded in the battle, officiated as chaplain at the ceremony, offering a prayer in thanks for the colonists&#39; victory. More than 100,000 attended the event, including 190 veterans who had participated in the battle.</p><br>
<p>Blocks of granite for the monument averaged 2 cubic yards each and were quarried by wedging. They were delivered to the site at an actual cost of $5.40 per cubic yard from a quarry opened for the purpose, far below the average contract offer of $24.30 for the same. Moving the blocks proceeded somewhat slowly at first, but the Granite Railway was completed in short order and became operational on October 7, 1826, the first commercial railroad in the United States functioning as a common carrier.</p><br>
<p>Construction of the monument was frequently halted as available funds were depleted. To bring the project to completion the Monument Association in 1838 began to sell off sections of the battlefield as house lots; they were successful in raising the money, while giving up about two thirds of the area (sale of 10 acres), preserving only the summit of Breeds Hill as the monument grounds. Neighbors disgruntled with the construction eyesore were rumored to have plans to raise money to tear down the partially completed monument. Sarah Josepha Hale and the readers of her magazine supplied funds essential to the monuments successful completion. The capstone was laid on July 23, 1842, and the monument was dedicated on June 17 of the following year, again with a Daniel Webster oration. According to the Boston Latin School Association&#39;s "Points of Pride Quiz" for December 2007, BLS boys helped erect the Boston landmark.</p><br>
<p>The Bunker Hill Monument Association maintained the monument and grounds until 1919, when it was turned over to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. In 1976 the monument was transferred to the National Park Service and became a unit of Boston National Historical Park. The monument was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1961, in part for its architectural significance as a major early war memorial, and the nation&#39;s largest-scale memorial prior to the construction of the Washington Monument. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966, and was included in the Monument Square Historic District in 1987.</p><br>
<h2>in Literature</h2><br>
<p>Lydia Sigourney&#39;s poem Bunker-Hill Monument was published in her Scenes in my Native Land, 1845 together with a description of both the monument and the battle.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
